LATIN    GRAMMAR 


FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


FOUNDED  ON    COMPARATIVE    GRAMMAR 


BY 


JOSEPH  H.  ALLEN 


JAMES    B.   GREENOUGH 

[U1TI7BRSITT! 


BOSTON 

PUBLISHED   BY    GINN   BROTHERS 

3  BEACON  STREET 

1872 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 

J.    H.    ALLEN   AND   J.    B.    GREENOUGH, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


CAMBRIDGE : 
PRESS   OF   JOHN   WILSON   AND    SON. 


PREFACE. 


OUR  aim  has  been  to  prepare,  within  moderate  com- 
pass, a  complete  Latin  grammar,  to  be  used  from  the 
beginning  of  the  study  of  Latin  until  the  end  of  a 
college  course.  The  whole  has  been  composed  from 
our  own  point  of  view,  and  is,  in  all  essentials,  a  new 
and  independent  work.  But  we  have  used  freely  the 
standard  authorities,  as  well  those  of  the  older  scho- 
lastic as  of  the  newer  critical  and  scientific  schools. 
In  several  points,  particularly  the  topical  arrangement 
of  the  Syntax,  we  have  followed  the  outline  sketched 
a  few  years  ago  by  Professor  Allen,  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin. 

We  have  endeavored  to  adapt  the  scientific  (philo- 
logical) method  of  inflection  by  stem  and  termination 
to  the  system  used  by  the  Romans  themselves  and 
handed  down  by  general  custom  to  our  time.  While 
the  five  Declensions  are  retained,  with  the  old  distinc- 
tions on  which  they  are  founded,  at  the  same  time  the 
true  philological  difference,  that  of  stems,  is  fully 
exhibited  as  the  real  basis  of  noun-forms.  In  the  same 
way  the  true  distinctions  of  verb-stems  are  adapted 
to  the  existing  four  Conjugations.  We  have  preferred 
'this  to  the  "  crude-form "  system,  partly  because  of 
the  practical  difficulty  that  our  lexicons  do  not  give 


VI  PREFACE. 


stems,  but  words ;  chiefly,  however,  from  the  inherent 
difficulty  of  a  crude-form  system  in  a  language  so 
decayed  as  the  Latin. 

In  respect  to  the  actual  forms  of  the  language,  we 
have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  go  back  of  Neue's 
"  Formenlehre,"  upon  which  we  have  relied,  and  which 
teachers  will  find  digested  so  far  as  seems  to  come 
within  the  limits  of  a  work  like  the  present. 

In  the  Syntax,  our  design  has  been  to  leave  no 
principle  untouched  which  a  student  needs  during  his 
school  and  college  course.  "We  have  attempted  to 
show,  as  far  as  possible,  the  reason  and  origin  of  con- 
structions, for  which  purpose  notes  have  been  inserted 
where  it  seemed  desirable.  Many  things  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  Subjunctive,  of  the  Protasis  and  Apodosis 
(in  which  we  have  followed  Professor  Goodwin's 
analysis),  of  Temporal  particles,  of  the  Infinitive  and 
Participles,  and  much  of  the  matter  of  the  notes, 
appear  for  the  first  time  in  a  school-book,  and  are  the 
results  of  the  authors'  own  investigations  in  Compar- 
ative Grammar.  The  Syntax  is  illustrated  by  upwards 
of  a  thousand  examples  cited  from  classical  authorities, 
principally  from  Cicero ;  besides  nearly  as  many  brief 
phrases  in  illustration  of  minor  points,  particularly 
the  use  of  prepositions  and  cases. 

In  Prosody  and  Versification  we  have  taken  a  little 
wider  range  than  usual,  so  as  to  enable  the  student  to 
read  metrically  any  poetry  he  will  meet  in  his  college 
course. 

In  the  typography  and  mechanical  arrangement  of 
the  page,  we  have  sought  to  give  every  aid  that  can 
be  rendered  in  that,  way  to  the  easy  comprehension  of . 
the  subject.  The  sub-sections  in  larger  type  (num- 


PREFACE.  Vll 

bered  1,  2,  3,  &c.)  contain  of  themselves  a  complete 
outline,  and  we  think  will  be  found  sufficient,  with  the 
accompanying  paradigms  or  examples,  for  a  course 
of  elementary  study.  Details  of  form  or  structure,  re- 
quiring to  be  committed  to  memory  only  as  they  occur 
in  reading,  are  put  in  smaller  type,  marked  a,  5,  <?,  &c. 
And  the  points  of  philology,  or  special  criticism,  which 
appear  to  throw  valuable  side-light  upon  the  subject, 
interesting  chiefly  to  teachers  or  special  students,  are 
contained  in  the  form  of  Notes,  not  interfering  at  all 
with  the  treatment  in  the  text.  By  paying  attention 
to  this  subordination  of  topics,  teachers  will  avoid  the 
serious  error  of  crowding  upon  the  student,  prema- 
turely, a  mass  of  details,  which  might  only  perplex 
and  obscure  his  real  understanding  of  the  subject. 

CAMBRIDGE,  April,  1872. 


V^^"^-^  S5% 
^>   0?  THE 

IstogsO 


FOR  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  wish  to  follow  out 
special  lines  of  study  in  general  or  comparative  grammar,  or  to 
consult  original  sources  on  the  history  and  development  of  the 
Latin,  a  list  of  works  including  the  best  and  most  recent  author- 
ities is  here  subjoined :  — 

BOPP:   Vergleichende  Grammatik  des  Sanskrit,  etc    [Indo-European  lan- 
guages].   4vols.     3d  Ed.     Berlin,  1868-70. 
The  original  standard  work  on  Comparative  Forms.    Later  researches  have 

corrected  some  erroneous  details.    English  translation  (poor),  London:    1862. 

The  best  form  is  a  French  translation,  with  Notes  and  Introductions  by  Michel 

Breal.    Paris:  1866. 

CORSSEN  :  Aussprache,  Vokalismus  und  Betonung  der  Lateinischen  Sprache. 
2  vols.     2d  Ed.     Leipzig,  1868. 

The  greatest  work  on  Latin  alone,  treating  the  language  in  reference  to  its 
own  individual  development,  particularly  as  to  the  sounds  (Lautlehre).  In.  the 
comparative  portion,  it  needs  the  correction  of  other  investigators. 

CURTIUS,  G. :  Grundziige  der  Griechischen  Etymologic.    3d  Ed.    Leipsic : 

1869. 

Treats  of  Latin  only  by  comparison;  but  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  on  the  general  subject. 

Erlduterungen  zu  meiner  Griechischen  Schul-grammatik.     2d  Ed. 

Prag.  1870.     English  translation  ("Elucidations"),  London:  1870. 

Notes  giving  in  connection  with  the  Greek  Grammar  the  simplest  view  of 
the  doctrine  of  forms. 

DELBRUCK  :  Das  Conjunctiv  und  Optativ,  im  Sanskrit  und  Griechischen. 

Halle:  1871. 

Origin  of  the  Moods  treated  scientifically;  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  a  notice  in  N.  A.  Review,  Oct.  1871,  and  "Analysis  of  the  Latin  Subjunc- 
tive," by  J.  B.  Greenough,  Cambridge,  1870. 

Ablativ,  Localis,  Instrumental  im  indischent  etc.     Berlin,  1867. 

Origin  of  the  various  Ablative  constructions. 

FERRAR  :   Comparative   Grammar  of  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin.    Lon- 
don :  1869.     Vol.  I.,  including  as  far  as  Pronouns. 
A  convenient  hand-book  in  English. 

FICK  :  Vergleichendes  Worterbuch  der  Indo-Germanischen  Sprachen.    Got- 
tingen :'  1870. 

A  Dictionary  of  Roots  and  Words  supposed  to  have  existed  in  the  Indo- 
European  tongue,  with  the  corresponding  words  and  derivatives  in  the  variouo 

a* 


X  NOTE. 

languages.  It  can  be  used  without  a  knowledge  of  German.  No  such  book, 
however,  is  safe  to  use  without  careful  study  of  the  laws  of  consonant  and 
vowel  changes. 

HOFFMANN:  Die  Construction  der  Lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln.    Vienna: 
1860  (Pamphlet). 

KUHN  :   See  Zeitschrift. 

LUBBERT  :  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.    Breslau :  1870. 

NEUE  :  Formenlehre  der  Lateinischen  Sprache.    2d  Ed.     Stuttgart,  1866. 
Storehouse  of  all  Latin  forms,  12^)0  pages,  containing  the  result  of  late  text- 
ual criticism.    The  standard  work. 

PEILE  :  Latin  and  Greek  Etymology.    2d  Ed.    Macmillan  :  London  and 
Cambridge,  1872. 

ROBY  :  A  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language,  from  Plautus  to  Suetonius. 
Macmillan  :  London  and  New  York,  1871.     Vol.  I. 

A  thorough  treatment  of  Latin  Etymology  on  the  principles  of  comparative 
grammar.  Some  errors  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  N.  A.  Keview,  Jan.  1872. 

SCHLEICHER  :     Compendium   der    Vergleichenden    Grammatik   der  Indo- 
Germanischen  Sprachen.    2d  Ed.     Weimar,  1866. 

ScHWEiZER-SiDLER :    Elementar-    und    Formenlehre    der    Lateinischen 

Sprache,  fur  Schulen.     Halle,  1869. 

The  best  summary  of  the  results  of  comparative  grammar  as  applied  to 
Latin  in  short  compass  (137  pages). 

WILLIAMS  :  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Language.     3d  Ed. 

Oxford,  1864. 

A  very  convenient  Sanskrit  grammar,  without  some  knowledge  of  which 
it  is  difficult  to  pursue  the  study  of  comparative  grammar  to  advantage. 

Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichender  Sprachforschung .    Edited  by  Dr.  A.  KUHN. 

Vols.  I.  to  XX.    Berlin,  1851-1871,  and  still  continued. 

The  best  essays  on  all  disputed  points  of  comparative  Philology.  Indispen- 
sable to  correct  theories  of  individual  investigators.  Each  volume  has  an 
Index ;  and  there  is  also  a  general  index  to  the  first  ten  volumes. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.  — ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION  PAGE 

1.  Alphabet 1 

1.  Classification ;  2.  Early  Forms ;  3.  Changes ;  4.  Com- 
binations; 5.  Syllables. 

2.  Pronunciation 5 

3.  Quantity 6 

4.  Accent 7 

5.  Inflection 8 

1.  Definition ;    2.  Root  and  Stem ;    Inflected  parts  of 
speech;  4.  Particles. 

6.  Gender 9 

1.   Natural  and   Grammatical;    2.   Rules;    3.  Common 
Gender;  4.  Epicene. 

7.  Case 11 

8.  Declension 12 

1.  Declensions;   2.  Rules;   3.  Case-Endings. 

NOUNS. 

9.  First  Declension .       14 

1.  Gender;   2.  Case  Forms;   3.  Greek  Nouns. 

10.  Second  Declension     . 15 

1.  Nominative;    2.  Stems  in  ro-;    3.  Gender;  4.  Case 
Forms ;   5,  6.  Nouns  in  er ;   7.  Greek  Nouns. 

11.  Third  Declension 17 

I.  Vowel   Stems.  —  1.  Stems;    2.  Nominative;   3.  Case 

Forms ;  4.  Greek  Nouns. 
II.  Liquid  Stems 19 

III.  Mute   Stems.  —  1.  Labial ;    2.  Lingual ;    3.  Palatal ; 

4.  Peculiar  Forms ;  6.  Greek  Nouns 20 

IV.  Rules  of  Gender.  —  1.  Nominative  endings ;  2.  Stems; 

3.  Classified  List 23 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

SECT.  PAGE. 

12.  Fourth  Declension 28 

13.  Fifth  Declension 29 

14.  Irregular  Nouns 30 

1.  Defective ;   2.  Variable. 

15.  Proper  Names 32 

ADJECTIVES. 

16.  Inflection - 33 

1.  Of  the  1st  and  2d  Declension;  2.  Of  3d  Declension; 
3.  Consonant  Stems,  Comparatives. 

17.  Comparison 38 

1.  Kegular;  2.  Irregular;  3.  Defective;  4.  Adverbs; 
5.  Signification. 

18.  Numerals 41 

1.  Cardinal  and  Ordinal ;  2.  Distributives ;  3.  Numeral 
Adverbs;  4.  Multiplicatives. 

PRONOUNS. 

19.  Personal  and  Reflexive 44 

20.  Demonstrative 45 

21.  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite 47 

1.  Case-Forms ;  2.  Compounds. 

22.  Correlatives 49 

VERBS. 

23.  Structure 50 

24.  Moods     ... 51 

25.  Participles 51 

26.  Gerund  and  Supine 52 

27.  Tenses 52 

1.  Classification;  2.  Meaning;  3.  Perfect  and  Imper- 
fect; 4.  Passive  Tenses;  5.  Stems. 

28.  Verb  Forms 54 

1.  Personal  Endings;  2.  Changes  of  Stem;  3.  Verb- 
Endings. 

29.  Esse  and  its  Compounds 57 

30.  Conjugation 60 

1.  First  Conjugation ;  2.  Second  Conjugation ;  3.  Third 
Conjugation ;  4.  Fourth  Conjugation  ;  5.  Principal 
Parts;  6.  Special  Forms ;  7.  Parallel  Forms. 

31.  First  Conjugation 66 

32.  Second  Conjugation 68 

33.  Third  Conjugation 70 

1.  Regular ;   2.  Verbs  in  io ;   3.  Irregular  Conjugation  .       72 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

SECT.  PAGE. 

34.  Fourth  Conjugation 74 

35.  Deponent  Verbs 75 

1.  Conjugation;  2.  Semi-Deponents. 

36.  Derivative  Verbs 77 

37.  Irregular  Verbs 78 

38.  Defective  Verbs 81 

39.  Impersonal  Verbs       .'..._ 82 

40.  Periphrastic  Forms 83 

PARTICLES. 

41.  Adverbs 84 

1.  Derivation;  2.  Classification;  3.  Signification. 

42.  Prepositions 88 

1.  With  Cases ;  2.  Meaning  and  Use :  Examples ;  3.  In 
Compounds. 

43.  Conjunctions 93 

1.  Classification;  2.  Classified  List ;  3.  Special  Meaning. 

44.  Derivation  of  Words 96 

1.  Noun  Forms ;  2.  Derivation  of  Verbs ;  3.  Compound 
Words. 

PART  II. —  SYNTAX. 

45.  Definitions 101 

1.  Sentence;  2.  Subject  and  Predicate ;  3.  Modification; 
4.  Phrase;  5.  Clause;  6.  Connectives;  7.  Agree- 
ment; 8.  Government. 

1.  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

46.  Of  Nouns 103 

1.  Appositive;  2.  Predicate- Nominative. 

47.  Of  Adjectives 105 

1.  Number ;  2.  Gender ;  3.  As  Nouns ;  4.  Use  of  Neu- 
ter ;  5.  Possessives ;  6.  As  Adverbs ;  7.  Compari- 
son ;  8.  Superlatives  of  Place ;  9.  Reciprocals. 

48.  Of  Relatives 109 

1.  Person  of  Verb;  2.  Gender;  3.  Antecedent;  4.  As 
Connective ;  5.  Adverbs. 

49.  Verbs  :  Rules  of  Argument 112 

1.  Plural  with  Collectives,  &c. ;  2.  Nominative  Subject. 

2.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 

50.  Genitive 113 

1.  Subjective,  114;  2.  Partitive,  115 ;  3.  Objective,  117 ; 
4.  After  Verbs,  119. 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

SECT.  PAGE. 

51.  Dative 121 

1.  With   Transitives,  121;    2.  With  Intransitives,  122; 

3.  Of  Possession,  126 ;    4.  Of  Agency,  127 ;    5.  Of 
Service,  128;    6.  Of  Nearness,  128;    7.  Of  Advan- 
tage, 129;   (Ethical  Dative,  130). 

52.  Accusative 131 

1.  General  Use  (Cognate  Accusative,  131);  2.  Two  Ac- 
cusatives ;  3.  Adverbial ;  4.  Special  Uses. 

53.  Vocative 134 

54.  Ablative 134 

1.  Of  Separation,  135 ;  2.  Of  Source,  136 ;  3.  Of  Cause, 
137;  4.  Of  Agent,  138;  5.  Of  Comparison,  138; 
6.  Of  Means,  139;  7.  Of  Quality,  141 ;  8.  Of  Price, 
141;  9.  Of  Specification,  142;  10.  Locative,  Abla- 
tive Absolute,  142. 

55.  Time  and  Place 143 

1.  Time ;    2.  Space ;    3.  Place   (Locative  Form,   145) ; 

4.  Way  by  which. 

56.  Use  of  Prepositions 146 

3.  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 

57.  Use  of  Moods  . 148 

1.  Indicative ;  2.  Subjunctive  (Independent  or  Depend- 
ent ;  3.  Hortatory ;  4.  Optative ;  5.  Concessive ; 
6.  Dubitative);  7.  Imperative;  8.  Infinitive  (Com- 
plementary, 154  ;  With  Subject- Accusative,  155  ; 
Historical,  156). 

58.  Use  of  Tenses  .     ,     .     . 157 

1..  Indicative ;  2.  Present  (Conative,  157;  Historical, 
158);  3.  Imperfect;  4.  Future;  5.  Perfect;  6.  Plu- 
perfect ;  7.  Future-Perfect ;  8.  Epistolary  Tenses  ; 
9.  Of  Subjunctive ;  10.  Sequence  of  Tenses  (Primary 
and  Secondary,  162) ;  11.  Of  Infinitive. 

59.  Conditional  Sentences 166 

1.  Protasis  and  Apodosis ;  2.  Particular  and  General  Con- 
ditions ;  3.  Present  and  Past  Conditions ;  4.  Future 
Conditions;  5.  General  Conditions. 

60.  Implied  Conditions 172 

1.  Condition  Disguised ;  2.  Condition  Omitted. 

61.  Conditional  Particles 174 

1.  Comparative;  2.  Concessive;  3.  Provisory;  4.  Mean- 
ing and  Use. 

62.  Relations  of  Time 176 

1.  Use  as  in  Protasis ;  2.  Absolute  and  Relative  Time, 
(Cum  temporal,  178;  causal,  180). 

63.  Cause  or  Reason 181 

1.  With  Indicative ;   2.  With  Subjunctive. 


CONTENTS.  XV 

SECT.  PAGE. 

64.  Purpose  (Final  Clauses) 182 

1.  Relatives  or  Conjunctions ;  2.  Forms. 

65.  Consequence  or  Result  (Consecutive- Clauses)  .     .     .     .     183 

1.  Subjunctive  with  ut  (lie) ;   2.  Of  Characteristic. 

66.  Intermediate  Clauses 185 

1.  Subjunctive  of  Citation;  2.  Dependent  Clauses. 

67.  Indirect  Discourse 187 

1.  Indirect  Narrative  (Subject- Accusative,  Relative  Clau- 
ses, Conditional  Sentences,  Questions),  188;  2.  In- 
direct Questions,  190;  3.  Indirect  Commands,  191. 

68.  Wishes  and  Commands 192 

69.  Relative  Clauses  (Classification  of)    . 193 

70.  Substantive  Clauses 193 

1.  Classification ;  2.  Accusative  and  Infinitive,  194 ; 
3.  Clauses  of  Purpose,  195;  4.  Clauses  of  Result, 
197 ;  5.  Indicative  with  quod,  199. 

71.  Questions 200 

1.  Interrogative  Particles ;  2.  Double  Questions ;  3.  Ques- 
tion and  Answer. 

72.  Participles 202 

1.  Distinctions  of  Tense;  2.  Adjective  use;  3.  Predi- 
cate use ;  4.  Future  Participle  ;  5.  Gerundive. 

73.  Gerund  and  Gerundive 206 

1.  Gerund;  2.  Gerundive;   3.  Construction  of  Cases. 

74.  Supine 209 

75.  General  Rules  of  Syntax 210 

76.  Arrangement • 212 

1.  Normal  Order;  2.  Emphasis;  3.  Structure  (Periodic). 

PART  III.  — PROSODY. 

77.  Rhythm 215 

78.  Rules  of  Quantity 215 

1.  General  Rules ;  2.  Final  Syllables ;  3.  Penultimate 
Syllables  (Increment  of  Nouns  and  Ve»bs). 

79.  Feet 220' 

80.  Scanning 222 

81.  Metre 223 

82.  Forms  of  Verse 224 

83.  Early  Prosody 232 

84.  Reckoning  of  Time 233 

85.  Measures  of  Value  235 


APPENDIX 237 


PART    FIRST. 
FORMS    OF   WORDS   (ETYMOLOGY). 


1.  ALPHABET. 

THE  Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
wanting  w. 

NOTE.  —  The  letter  w  is  found,  however,  in  many  modern  Latin 
words,  especially  proper  names. 

1.  Classification.  —  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are 
classified  as  follows :  — 

a.  VOWELS  (litterae  vocales,  or  voice-letters)  :  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y. 
The  following  are  Diphthongs  (double-vowels) :  ae  (ae),  au,  eu, 
oe  (oe),  ei,  ui. 

6.  CONSONANTS  (litterae  consonantes,  i.e.,  sounding-wiih  the 
vowels) :  — 

MUTES  :  Labial    surd    p     sonant  b     spirant    f  (v)      nasal    m 
Lingual    „       t          „       d  ,,         n 

Palatal     „    c(k)      „       g  h  „     [ng] 

Double  Consonants,  x  (cs),  z  (ds). 

LIQUIDS:  1,  m,  nf  r.  —  SIBILANTS:  surd  s,  sonant  z. 

The  letters  i  (j)  and  u  (v)  at  the  beginning  of  a  syllable  be- 
fore a  vowel,  also  u  in  quis,  suadeo,  &c.,  are  SEMI-VOWELS. 
The  consonants  f,  g,  p,  z,  are  never  used  at  the  end  of  a  word. 

NOTE.  —  The  Aspirate  (or  breathing)  h  follows  in  inflection  the 
rule  of  palatals ;  and  was  originally,  in  many  words,  a  harsh  guttural 
(kh),  like  the  Greek  \,  or  the  Spanish  j.  Its  later  sound  was  very 
slight,  and  in  most  languages  derived  from  Latin  has  quite  disappeared. 
Sometimes,  as  in  aheneus  (=aeneus],  it  seems  to  be  used  only  to 
separate  two  vowels.  It  is  not  reckoned  as  a  consonant  in  Prosody. 


2  EARLY   FORMS.  -  CHANGES.  [1:2>3» 

2.  Early  Forms.  —  The  alphabet  in  the  time  of  Cicero 
(N.  D.  ii.  37)  consisted  of  "  one  and  twenty  letters."     These 
were,  — 

a,  b,  c,  €b  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  x. 

y  and  z  were  added,  in  words  derived  from  Greek,  i  and  u, 
when  used  as  consonants  ("  semi-  vowels"),  having  the  sound  of 
y  and  w,  are  generally  written  j  and  v:  as,  juvenis  for  iuuenis. 

a.  In  early  use,  c  was  not  distinguished  in  form  or  sound  from 
g.     After  the  distinction  was  made,  C  was  still  used,  convention- 
ally, as  the  initial  of  names  (Gaius,  Gnaeus)  beginning  properly 
with  G.     It  came,  in  later  use,  to  take  the  place  of  k,  which  was 
retained  only  in  abbreviations,  or  as  the  initial  letter  of  a  few 
words,  as  Kalendae,  Karthago,  in  which  it  is  followed  by  a. 

b.  Till  after  the  age  of  Augustus,  u  was  never,  in  good  use, 
preceded  in  the  same  syllable  by  u  or  v.     In  many  words,  as  in 
volt,  servos,  o  was  written  where  later  custom  allows  u  ;  while 
c  was  regularly  used  for  qu  in  such  words  as  cum  (for  quum), 
ecus    (for   equus),    relicus    (for  reliquus),  locuntur    (for  lo- 
quuntur),  and  the  like;    also  in  cotidie    (for    quotidie),  and 
a  few  other  words.     The  old  forms  quom   (for  cum)  and  quor 
(for  cur)  are  also  found. 

c.  At   the  end   of  a  few  words,  —  as    sed,   apud,    illud,  — 
t  was  anciently  written  instead  of  d.      In  words  ending  in    -s, 
final  s  was  often  elided  (Cic.  Orat.  48),  as  in  qualist  (qualis-est)  ; 
plenu'  fidei  (Senect.  1). 

3.  Changes.  —  Letters  are  often  changed,  according  to 
general  laws  of  inflection  (vowel-increase),  or  to  secure  an 
easier  or  smoother  sound  (euphonic  change)  ;  or  have  been 
altered  or  lost  through  long  use  (phonetic  decay).     Of  such 
changes  are  the  following  :  — 

a.  Vowels  arc  strengthened  in  inflection  and  derivation  (vowel- 
increase)'.  as,  ago,  egi  (cf.  tell,  told)',  disco,  ddceo  (tf.fa(l,fell^; 
sit,  set)-,  pendo,  pondus;  persono,  persona;  perfidus,  jfidus, 
foedus  (cf.  bind,  band). 


NOTE.  —  The  primitive  vowel-sound  may  be  assumed  to  be  a,  as 
in  father.     Starting  with  this,  and  gradually  contracting  the  palate, 
we  form  in  succession  the  sound  of  e  (a)  and  i  (ee],  leading  to  the 
semi-  vowel  j  (y).     By  contracting  the   lips,  we  in  like  manner  form 
the  sound  of  o  and  u  (00),  leading  to  the  semi-vowel  v  (iv).     By 
contracting  both  palate  and  lips,  we  form  the  French  sound  of  u,  — 
in  Greek   v,  and  in  Latin  y.      This,  which   is 
called  the  Vowel-Scale,  is   of  great  service  in 
tracing  the  modifications  of  vowel-sounds.     It 
may  be  represented  thus  :  —  i»  J      Y    v»  u 


1:   3-]  EUPHONIC    CHANGES.  3 

b.  Vowels  are  weakened  by  negligent  pronunciation  for  long 
periods  of  time  (phonetic  decay).     Thus,  on  one  side  of  the  scale, 
a  becomes  e,  then  i;  or,  on  the  other,  becomes  o,  then  u;  while 
u  and  i  meet  in  the  French  u  (y) :    as,  agmen,  agminis ;   facio, 
conficio,  confectum ;  salio,  exsulto ;  sepelio,  sepultus ;  ebur, 
eboris ;  maxumus,  maximus  (cf.  master,  mister,  mistress). 

c.  Two  vowels  coming  together  are  contracted  into  a  single 
sound:  as,  obit  (obiit),  cogo  (co-ago),  nil  (nihil),  debeo  (de- 
hibeo),  coetus  (coitus),  ingeni  (cf.  mayhem,  maim).' 

d.  The  semi-vowels  j  and  v  are  lost  before  a  vowel,  contrac- 
tion sometimes  also  takiiig  place :    as,  obicit  (6bjicit),  coiiicit 
(conjicit),    cunctus   (conjunctus),   rursus   (re versus),   coiitio 
(conventio),  motum  (mbvitum). 

e.  Between  two  vowels,  or  before  m  or  n,  s  becomes  r:   as, 
genus,    generis;    maereo,    maestus;    veternus    (vetus-nus), 
carmen  (casmen). 

f.  When  two  consonants  come  together  by  derivation,  inflec- 
tion, or  composition,  an  easier  pronunciation  is  secured  thus  :  — 

!•  The  first  is  entirely  assimilated  to  the  second.  Thus,  a  liquid, 
—  m,  n,  or  (less  frequently)  r  —  before  another  liquid  is  changed  to 
that  liquid  [but  r  is  not  changed  to  m  or  n]  :  as,  collego  (con-lego), 
corrigo  (com-rego),  illudo  (in-ludo),  illlco  (in  loco),  intellego  (inter-lego), 
asellus  (asin[ii]lus) .  So  d  before  1:  as  in  lapilius  (Uipidulus) ;  and  b 
(rarely)  before  a  liquid:  as,  summitto  (submitto). 

2.  The  former  is  assimilated  in  kind.  Thus  :  —  a.  A  sonant  before  a 
surd  becomes  surd  :  as,  tego,  texi  (x=cs),  tectum  ;  nubo,  nupsi,  nuptum  ; 
coquo,  coxi,  coctum.  —  b.  A  surd  before  a  sonant  becomes  sonant,  as  in 
segmentum  (seco). — c.  A  labial  nasal  before  a  dental  mute  sometimes 
becomes  dental:  contendo  (com-tendo),  jandudum  (jam  dud  urn),  quant  us 
(quamtus).  —  d.  A  dental  nasal  before  a  labial  sometimes  becomes  labial : 
as,  impono  (in-pono).  — e.  d  and  t  before  t  sometimes  become  s  (see  4)  : 
as,  equester  (equet-ter),  est  (edt). 

3.  The    former  is  lost,  having  probably  been  first  assimilated. 
Thus  :  —  a.  d  and  t  are  lost  before  s,  but  sometimes  only  assimilated : 
as,  pedes  (pedets),  vas  (vads,  vadis),  esse  (edse,  edo).  —  b.  c  and  g  are 
lost  before  t  and  s  when  1  or  r  precedes:   as,  sartus   (=sarctus,  sar- 
cio),  mulsi  (=mulgsi,  mulgeo),  indultus  (=indulgtus,  indulgeo).  —  c.  c  and  g" 
are  sometimes  lost  before  m  and  n :   as,  examen  (exagmen),  luna  (luc- 
na),  lumen  (luc-men). 

4.  The  second  is  partially  assimilated  to  the  first  (as  in  English 
wrecked  becomes,  in  pronouncing,  reckt) ;   in  this  case  both  are  often 
changed.     Thus,   after  n  and  1  —  rarely  after  other  letters  —  t  be- 
comes s  (the  continued  sound  corresponding  to  the  explosive  t) :  as, 
mansus  (=mantus,  maneo),  pulsus  (pello),  casus  (cado),  passus  (=pattus, 
pat/or),  sparsus  (=spargtus,  spargo),  tensus  (tendo,  but  also   tentus) ,  fixus 
(figo,  but  fictus  from  Jingo),  maximus  (for  mag-timus),  lapsus  (labor), 
pasxus  (pando). 

NOTE.  —  After  m,  before  s  or  t,  p  is  inserted  for  euphony:   as, 
sumo,  sumpsi,  sumptum.     So  hiemps  for  hiems. 


4  ASSIMILATION. VARIATIONS.  [1:3« 

</.  Especially  the  final  consonant  of  prepositions  was  assimilated 
to  the  initial  consonant  of  verbs. 

Thus,  ad  is  assimilated  before  c,  g,  p,  t ;  less  regularly  before 
1,  r,  s,  and  rarely  before  m ;  while  before  f,  n,  q,  the  form  ad  is 
to  be  preferred; — ab  is  not  assimilated,  but  may  take  the  form  a, 
aii,  or  abs;  —  in  com  (con,  co),  m  is  retained  before  b,  p,  m ;  is 
assimilated  before  1,  n,  r ;  is  changed  to  n  before  c,  d,  f,  g,  i,  q, 
s,  v ;  varies  between  m  and  n  before  p ;  is  sometimes  assimilated 
(otherwise  n)  before  r  andl;  and  loses  the  final  m  in  conecto,  co- 
niveo,  conitor,  conubium ;  —  in  usually  changes  n  to  m  before  b,  m, 
p;  before  1  the  better  orthography  retains  n;  — ob  and  sub  are 
assimilated  before  c,  f,  g,  p,  and  sometimes  before  m ;  sub  also 
before  r;  and,  in  early  Latin,  b  of  these  prepositions  sometimes 
becomes  p  before  s  or  t.  The  inseparable  amb  loses  b  before  a 
consonant,  and  m  is  sometimes  assimilated ;  —  circum  loses  m  before 
a  vowel ;  —  s  of  dis  before  a  vowel  becomes  r,  and  before  a  conso 
nant  is  lost  or  assimilated ;  —  the  d  of  red  and  sed  is  generally  losl 
before  a  consonant. 

NOTE.  —  In  most  of  these  cases  the  later  editions  prefer  the 
unaltered  forms  throughout ;  but  the  changes  given  above  have  gooc 
authority.  Others,  which  are  corruptions  of  the  middle  ages  (as 
assum  for  adsum),  would  better  be  avoided. 

h.  The  combinations  ci  and  ti  before  a  vowel  are  found  inter- 
changed in  many  words  :  as  in  nuntlus  or  nuncius ;  contio  or  con- 
do  ;  but  in  these  cases  only  one  is  correct :  as,  contio,  dicio. 

NOTE. — The  substitution  of  c  for  t  is  an  example  of  phonetic 
decay,  and  belongs  to  a  later  period  of  the  language.  In  Italian,  z 
and  in  Spanish,  c,  has  regularly  taken  the  place  of  t  in  such  combi 
nations  :  as  in  nazione,  nation.  The  sound  of  s  (assibilation)  or  of  si 
traceable  in  them  led  gradually  to  the  adoption  of  this  as  the  regulai 
sound  of  c  before  e  or  i. 

i.  The  aspirate  h  is  occasionally  used  to  indicate  the  hare 
sound  of  c,  as  in  pulcher  for  pulcer.  Many  words  are  writter 
sometimes  with  and  sometimes  without  an  initial  h:  as,  arene 
or  harena,  ariolor  or  hariolor,  erus  or  herus.  The  combina 
tions  ph,  th,  are  found  only  in  words  taken  from  the  Greek. 

Jc.  The  following  words  are  variously  spelt  in  different  editions 
inferior  or  rejected  forms  being  marked  f  :  — 

Adolescens,  adulescens  ;  ancora,  f  anchora  ;  annulus,  anulus ;  arctus 
artus  ;  cvecus,  coccus  ;  ccelum,  codum  ;  cceruleus,  coeruleus  ;  causa,  caussa 
ccespes,  cespes  ;  ceteri,  f  coderi  ;  ccena,  ccena,  cena  ;  condicio,  t  conditio  ;  con 
jnnx,  t  conjux  ;  contio,  t  contio  ;  dicio,  t  ditio  ;  dumtaxat,  duntaxat ;  epi 
stola,  epistula  ;  eumdem,  eundem ;  exsisto,  existo  (and  other  compounds 
of  ex  before  s) ;  femina,  \fozmina;  fenus,  fcenus,  foenus ';  Acres,  f  hceres 
hcedus,  t  hoedus  ;  hiems(ps),  t  hyems ;  idcirco,  t  iccirco  ;  immo,  imo  ;  inclutus 
t  inclytus ;  intellego,  intelliyo  ;  lacrima,  \\acryma  ;  litera,  littera;  litus,  flit 
tus  ;  lubet,  libet  ;  mceror,  moeror;  milia,  f  millia  ;  multa,  mulcta  ;  t  w,  ne 
nequidquam,  nequiquam  ;  numquam,  nunquam ;  "f  nuncio,  nuntio ;  paulhis 
paulus  ;  quicquid,  quidquid;  religio,  relligio  ;  retuli,  rettuli ;  silva,  t  sylva  . 


1.     2.]  ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION.  5 

solennis,  solemnis ;  solers,  sollers;  sulfur,  ^sulphur,'  tamquam,  tanquam  ; 
thesaurus,  thensaurus ;  thus,  tus ;  tiro,  f  tyro ;  umquam,  unquam ;  ungo, 
unguo ;  verto,  vorto ;  also,  the  gerund-forms  -endus  or  -undus ;  and  the 
superlative  -imus  or  -umus. 

NOTE.  —  Many  of  the  above  variations  are  due  to  the  practice  of 
writing  from  dictation,  or  by  the  ear,  by  which  most  MS.  copies  of 
the  classics  were  made,  —  a  single  reader  often  dictating  to  numerous 
copyists,  whose  spelling  was  often  corrupt,  and  without  authority. 

4.  Combinations.  —  Two   words   are   often  united  in 
writing,  and  sometimes  in  sound. 

a*  Conjunctions  or  other  particles  are  thus  connected :  as  in 
etenim,  jamdiu,  siquis,  and  siquidem. 

So  the  adverbial  combinations  quare,  quamobrem,  &c.,  as  in 
English  nevertheless,  notwithstanding. 

b.  The   verb    est,   is,   is  joined  with    the    preceding  word, 
especially  in  the  old  poets,  or  when  the  two  would  be  united  by 
elision  :  as,  homost,  periculumst 

c.  Similar  contractions  are  found  in  vin'  (visne),  scin'  (scis- 
ne),  sis  (si  vis),  sodes  (si  audes),  as  in  English,  don't,  won't. 

5.  Syllables.  —  In  the  division  of  syllables,  a  single  con- 
sonant between  two  vowels  is  to  be  written  with  the  latter. 

a.  This  rule  is  usually  extended  to  double  consonants,  or  any 
combination  of  consonants  which  can  be  used  to  begin  a  word :  as, 
ho-spes,  ma-gnus,  di-xit. 

b.  In  compounds,  the  parts  should  be  separated :  as,  ab-est, 
ob-latus. 

NOTE.  —  Custom  allows  many  other  departures  from  the  rule. 

c.  A  syllable  preceded  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  word  is  called 
pure;  when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  impure. 

d.  An  initial  syllable  ending,  or  a  final  syllable  beginning,  with 
a  vowel,  is  called  open ;  otherwise,  it  is  called  close. 


2.     PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  Roman. — The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  Vowels 
was,  no  doubt,  nearly  like  the  Italian  ;  which,  with  little 
variation,  is  that  found  in  most  of  the  continental  languages 
of  Europe.  That  of  some  of  the  Consonants  is  more  uncer- 
tain. In  the  system  of  pronunciation  founded  on  ancient 


6  PRONUNCIATION. QUANTITY.  [2:2.     3:   I, 

use,  the  long  and  short  vowels  are  sounded  respectively  as 
follows :  — 

a  as  in  father.    a-rt-a~  a  as  in  fast. 

e     ,,      rein.  %      ,,      met. 

i      ,,      machine.  I      ,,      pin. 

6      ,,      holy.  6      ,,      wholly. 

u     ,,      rude.  u     ,,     full. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  probable  that  y  (also  u  in  maxumus,  &c.)  was  simi- 
lar to  the  French  u ;  it  is  usually,  however,  sounded  like  i. 

a.  The  final  or  unaccented  open  sound  of  the  vowels  is  nearly 
as  in  the  last  syllable  of  comma,  yesterday,  pity,  hollow,  cuckoo. 

&.  In  Diphthongs,  each  vowel  has  its  proper  sound :  thus,  ae 
has  neai»ly  the  sound  of  ay,  auof  oi0t  oe  of  oy,  ui  of  we. 

c*  Of  consonants,  c  and  g  are  always  hard,  as  in  can,  give ; 
j  has  the  sound  of  y,  v  of  w,  and  n  before  palatals  of  ng;  the 
combination  bs  is  like  ps,  ch  like  k,  and  ph  like  f. 

NOTE.  —  The  sound  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs,  as  above  given, 
has  been  generally  adopted  in  this  country.  In  regard  to  the  conso- 
nants c,  g,  j,  v,  there  is  still  considerable  difference  of  usage. 

2.  Modern*  —  Modern  custom  has  generally  allowed 
Latin  to  be  pronounced  in  each  country  according  to  the 
rules  of  its  own  language.  What  is  known  as  the  English 
Method  adopts  the  following:  — 

a.  The  vowels  and  consonants  have  the  same  sound  as  in 
English.  But  there  are  no  silent  letters  (except  in  scanning  verse, 
by  the  usage  called  Elision)  ;  such  words  as  dies,  mare,  audiere, 
pauperiei,  having  each  as  many  syllables  as  vowels  or  diphthongs. 

&.  By  American  custom,  final  a  is  pronounced  in  the  Italian 
way,  as  in  comma.  But  in  the  monosyllables  a,  da,  sta,  qua, 
some  persons  retain  the  English  sound. 

c.  The  diphthongs  ae,  oe,  are  pronounced  like  ee  ;  au  like  aw ; 
eu  like  ew ;  ei  and  ui  like  i  in  kite ;  es  and  (in  plural  words)  os 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in  the  English  disease,  morose. 

d.  The  consonants   c    and   g    are  made  soft   (like  s  and  j) 
before  e,  i,  y,  ae,  oe,  eu ;   ch  is  always  hard,  as  in  chasm. 


3.     QUANTITY. 

1.  Quantity  is  the  relative  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a 
syllable,  —  a  long  syllable  being  equal  to  two  short  ones. 


3:  2.     4.]  QUANTITY. ACCENT.  7 

NOTE.  —  The  distinction  of  Quantity  was  carefully  observed 
by  the  ancients,  but  came  to  be  almost  wholly  disregarded  in 
later  times  except  in  the  composition  of  Latin  verse. 

2.  Some  of  the  most  general  rules  of  quantity  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

a.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short :  as  in  via,  nYhil 
&.   A  diphthong  is  long :  as  in  aedes,  foedus. 

€•   A  syllable  formed  by  contraction  is  long :   as,  ml  (mini) ;     . 
nil  (nihil)  ;  intrarat  (intraverat) ;   nemo  (ne  homo). 

NOTE. — In  many  text-books  and  old  editions,  contraction  is  de- 
noted by  a  circumflex  :  as,  mi,  intrarat. 

d.  A  syllable  in  which  a  vowel  is  followed  by  two  consonants, 
or  a  double  consonant,  is  long :  as  in  rectus,  dCLxit.     Sometimes 
the  vowel  itself  is  made  long,  as  before  ns  in  praesens. 

e.  A  syllable  in  which  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  a  mute  with 
1  or  r  is  common,  —  that  is,  it  may  be  long  in  verse :  as,  allcris. 

REMARK.  —  Many  final  syllables,  originally  long,  are  always  found 
short  in  classic  Latin :  for  example,  the  stem-vowel  a  of  the  first 
declension. 

NOTE.  —  The  sign  ("")  denotes  that  a  vowel  is  long;  (~)  that  it  is 
short ;  (-)  that  it  is  common. 

For  particular  rules  of  Quantity,  see  §  78. 


4.     ACCENT. 

1.  The  accent  of  Latin  words  never  falls  on   the  final 
syllable,  but  is  confined  to  one  of  the  two  preceding. 

2.  The  following  are  general  rules  of  accent :  — 

a.  Words   of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the  first 
syllable:  as,  e"rant,  they  were;  di'es,  day. 

b.  Words    of  more   than   two  syllables  are  accented  on  the 
Penult,  if  that  is  long:  as,  ami'cus,  friend;  if  it  is  short  or  com- 
mon, then  on  the  Antepenult :  as,  dS'minus,  a'lacris. 

NOTE.  —  The  Penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one  ;  the  Antepenult, 
the  last  but  two. 

c.  When  an  Enclitic  is  joined  to  a  word,  the  accent  falls  on 
the  syllable  next  before  the  enclitic,  whether  long  or  short :  as, 
dea'que,    amare've,   tlbi'ne,    ita'que,  and  so,  as  distinguished 
from  i'taque,  therefore. 


8  ACCENT. INFLECTION.  [5  :    I,  2 

NOTE.  —  The  acute  accent  (')  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  stress  of 
voice ;  the  grave  f  ),  to  mark  an  adverb  or  conjunction ;  the  circumflex 
(*),  the  ablative  in  a,  the  perfect  in  ere,  or  &  contracted  syllable. 


5.    INFLECTION. 

1.  Inflection  is  a  change  made  in  the  form  of  a  word,  tc 
show  its  grammatical  relations. 

a.  Changes  of  inflection  sometimes  take  place  in  the  body  of  a 
word,  but  oftener  in  its  termination :  as,  vox,  a  voice  ;  vocis,  of 
a  voice ;  v5co,  1  call ;  v6cat,  he  calls ;  vocavit,  he  has  called. 

b*  Terminations  of  inflection  had  originally  an  independent 
meaning,  and  correspond  nearly  to  the  use  of  prepositions  or  per- 
sonal pronouns  in  English :  thus,  in  v6cat,  the  termination  is 
equivalent  to  he  or  she ;  and  in  vocis,  to  the  preposition  of. 

c.  Changes  of  inflection  in  the  body  of  a  verb  usually  denote 
relations  of  time  or  manner,  and  correspond  to  the  use  of  auxiliary 
verbs  in  English :  thus,  in  frangit  (root  frag-),  he  breaks  or  is 
breaking,  the  form  of  the  word  indicates  Present  time  or  continued 
action  ;  while  in  fregit,  he  broke  or  has  broken,  it  indicates  Past  time 
or  Completed  action. 

2.  The  body  of  a  word,  to  which  the  terminations  are 
attached,  is  called  the  STEM. 

a.  The  Stem  contains  the  idea  of  the  word  without  relations ; 
but,  in  general,  it  cannot  be  used  without  some  termination  to 
express  these.  Thus  the  stem  voc-  denotes  voice  ;  with  -s  added 
it  becomes  vox,  a  voice  or  the  voice,  as  the  subject  or  agent  of  an 
action  ;  with  -is  it  becomes  vocis,  and  signifies  of  a  voice. 

&.  A  still  more  primitive  form,  expressing  the  main  idea  less 
definitely,  and  common  also  to  other  words,  either  in  the  same  or 
other  languages,  is  called  a  ROOT.  For  example,  the  root  STA  is 
found  in  the  Sanskrit  tistjidmi,  Greek  IOTTJJU,  Latin  sistere  and 
stare,  German  stehen,  and  English  stand. 

Again,  the  root  of  the  stem  voc-  is  v6c,  which  means  not  to 
call,  or  /  call,  or  calling,  but  merely  call :  and  cannot  be  used  to 
mean  any  thing  without  terminations.  With  a  it  becomes  v5ca-, 
the  stem  of  the  present  vbcamus,  we  call;  with  avi-  it  is  the 
stem  of  the  perfect  vbcavi,  /  called ;  with  ato-  it  becomes  the 
stem  of  the  participle  vocatos,  called ;  with  ation-  it  becomes 
the  stem  of  vocationis,  of  a  calling.  With  its  vowel  lengthened 
it  becomes  the  stem  of  vox,  a  voice  (that  by  which  we  call)  ;  with 
alis  added  it  means  belonging  to  a  voice  ;  with  iila,  a  little  voice. 


5:   3,  4-    6:    I.]  INFLECTION. GENDER.  9 

NOTE.  —  Thus,  in  inflected  languages,  words  are  built  up  from 
Roots,  which  at  a  very  early  time,  long  before  Latin  was  a  distinct 
language,  were  used  alone  to  express  ideas,  as  is  now  done  in 
Chinese.  Roots  are  modified  into  Stems,  which,  by  inflection, 
become  Words.  The  process  by  which  they  are  modified,  in  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  derivatives  and  compounds,  is  called  Stem-building. 

c.  The  Stem  is  sometimes  the  same  with  the   Root:    as  in 
due-is,    fer-t;    but    is    more    frequently  formed  from  the  root, 
either  (1)  by  changing   or   lengthening   its   vowel,  as   in   reg-is, 
duc-o;    (2)  by  the  addition  or  insertion  of  a  consonant,  as  in 
tendo,   pango;    (3)  by  the  addition  of  a  terminal  vowel,  as  in 
fugis,  fuga ;   or  (4)  by  derivation  and  composition,  following  the 
laws  of  development  peculiar  to  the  language. 

d.  The   terminations    of  inflection  are  variously  modified  by 
combining  with  the  final  vowel  or  consonant  of  the  Stem,  leading 
to  the  various  forms  of  Declension  and  Conjugation. 

NOTE.  —  A  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel  is  called  an  open 
affix ;  one  beginning  with  a  consonant,  a  close  affix.  When  a  close 
affix  is  joined  to  a  consonant-stem,  there  is  usually  either  a  euphonic 
change,  as  rexi  for  reg-si,  or  a  vowel  appears,  as  reg-i-bus.  But  in  most 
cases,  what  is  called  a  connecting  vowel  really  belongs  to  the  stem, 
as  in  voca-mus,  regi-mus. 

3.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Participles  have  in- 
flections of  declension,  to  denote  gender,  number,  and  case; 
Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  of  comparison,  to  denote  degree ; 
and  Verbs  of  conjugation,  to  denote  voice,  mood,  tense,  num- 
ber, and  person. 

4.  Those  parts  of  speech  which  are  not  inflected  are  called 
PARTICLES  :  these  are  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Inter- 
jections, with  Adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  manner. 

NOTE.  —  The  term  Particles  is  sometimes  limited  to  such  words  as 
mini,  -ne,  an  (interrogative],  11011,  ne  (negative),  si  (conditional),  &c., 
which  are  used  simply  to  indicate  the  form  or  construction  of  a  sen- 
tence. Interjections  are  not  properly  to  be  classed  among  parts  of 
speech,  and  differ  little  from  inarticulate  sounds.  For  convenience, 
a  list  is  given  of  those  in  most  common  use,  following  the  conjunc- 
tions (p.  95). 

•  6.     GENDER. 

. 

I .  The  gender  of  Latin  nouns  is  either  natural  or  gram- 
matical. 

a.  Natural  gender  is  distinction  as  to  the  sex  of  the  object 
denoted:  as,  puer,  boy ;  puella,  girl;  donum,  gift. 

1*  ~£^  -i^-^-^JSj^S^. 


10  GENDER.  [6:   I,  2. 

b»  Many  masculine  nouns  have  a  corresponding  feminine  form : 
as,  servus,  serva,  slave;  cliens,  clienta,  client;  victor,  vic- 
trix,  conqueror.  Most  designations  of  persons  (as,  nauta,  sailor, 
miles,  soldier),  usually  though  not  necessarily  male,  are  masculine. 

c.  Grammatical    gender  is   a  like   distinction  where  no   sex 
exists  in  the  object,  and  is  shown  by  the  form  of  the  adjective 
joined  with  it:  as,  lapis  magnus    (M.),  a  great  stone;   manus 
mea  (F.),  my  hand. 

d.  A  few  neuter  nouns  are  used  to  designate  persons  as  belong- 
ing to  a  class  :  as,  mancipium  tuum,  your  slave.   Names  of  classes 
or  bodies  of  persons  may  be  of  either  gender :  as,  exercitus  (M.), 
acies  (F.),  and  agmen  (N.),   army;    and  the  feminine  operae, 
workmen,  copiae,  troops. 

NOTE.  —  What  we  call  grammatical  gender  is  in  most  cases  the 
product  of  the  imagination  at  a  rude  age,  when  language  was  in  the 
course  of  growth.  Thus  a  River  was  seen,  or  a  Wind  was  felt,  as  a 
living  creature,  violent  and  strong,  and  so  is  masculine ;  a  Month  is  a 
guide  or  divider  of  tasks,  and  so  is  masculine  ;  and  the  fable  of  Atlas 
shows  how  similar  living  attributes  were  ascribed  to  Mountains, 
which,  in  the  northern  fables,  are  the  bones  of  giants.  Again,  the 
Earth,  or  a  country  or  city,  seems  the  mother  of  its  progeny ;  the  Tree 
shelters  and  ripens  its  fruit,  as  a  brooding  bird  its  nest  of  eggs  ;  and, 
to  this  day,  a  Ship  is  always  referred  to  by  a  feminine  pronoun. 

Again,  in  the  East  and  South,  the  Sun,  from  its  fierce  heat  and 
splendor,  is  masculine,  and  its  paler  attendant,  the  Moon,  feminine ; 
while,  among  northern  nations,  the  Sun  (perhaps  for  its  comforting 
warmth)  is  feminine,  and  the  Moon  (the  appointer  of  works  and 
days)  masculine.  The  rules  of  grammatical  gender  only  repeat  and 
extend  these  early  workings  of  the  fancy. 

2.  Names  of  Male  beings,  together  with  Rivers,  "Winds, 
and  Mountains  are  masculine;  names  of  Female  beings, 
Cities,  Countries,  Plants,  of  many  Animals  (especially  Birds), 
and  of  most  abstract  Qualities,  are  feminine. 

NOTE.  —  Most  of  the  above  may  be  recognized  by  their  termina- 
tions, according  to  the  rules  of  gender  under  the  several  declensions. 

a.   Names  of  Rivers  are  masculine,  except  a  few,  chiefly  in  a. 

These  are  Albula,  Allia,  Druentia,  Duria,  Garumna,  Matrdna,  Mo- 
sella ;  also  Lethe  and  Styx.  Many  are  variable. 

NOTE.  —  Names  of  Months  are  properly  Adjectives,  the  masculine 
noun  mensis  being  understood. 

&.  Names  of  Towns,  Islands,  and  Trees  in  us  are  feminine ; 
also,  many  names  of  Plants  and  Gems  in  us. 

c.  Indeclinable  nouns,  Terms  or  Phrases  used  as  nouns,  and 
words  quoted  merely  for  their  forms,  are  neuter  :  as,  nihil,  nothing  ; 
gummi,  gum ;  scire  tuum,  your  knowing ;  triste  vale,  a  sad  fare- 
well ;  hoc  ipsum  diu,  this  same  word  diu ;  illud  ruisse,  illud 
ardere  (Plin.),  that  crash,  that  blaze. 


6:3,4-    70  GENDER. CASE.  11 

3.  Many  nouns    may  be  either   masculine   or  feminine, 
according  to  the  sex  of  the  object.     These  are  said  to  be  of 
COMMON  GENDER:  as,  exsul,  exile;  bos,  ox  or  cow. 

NOTE.  —  When  a  noun  signifying  a  thing  without  life  is  both  mas- 
culine and  feminine,  —  as,  dies,  day ;  finis,  end,  —  it  is  sometimes  said 
to  be  of  Doubtful  Gender. 

4.  A  few  names  of  animals  are  always  connected  with 
adjectives  of  the  same  gender,  either  masculine  or  feminine, 
independent  of  sex.     They  are  called  EPICENE. 

Thus  lepus,  hare,  is  always  masculine,  and  vulpes,  fox,  feminine. 
To  denote  a  male  fox  we  may  say,  vulpes  mascula ;  or  a  female 
hare,  lepus  femina. 


7.    CASE. 

There  are  in  Latin  six  Cases,  which  express  the 
relations  of  nouns  to  other  words.  They  are  usually 
put  in  the  following  order:  1.  Nominative;  2.  Gen- 
itive ;  3.  Dative  ;  4.  Accusative ;  5.  Vocative ;  6.  Ab- 
lative. 

1.  The  NOMINATIVE  is  the  case  of  the  Subject  of  a  propo- 
sition: as, 

pater  meus  adest,  my  father  is  here. 

2.  The  GENITIVE   (of)  is  used  like  the  English  posses- 
sive ;  also  with  many  adjectives  and  verbs,  especially  those  of 
memory  or  feeling :  as, 

patris  ejus  amicus  miseretur  mei,  his  father's  friend  pities  me. 

3.  The  DATIVE  (to  or  for)  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect 
Object,  and  is  used  to  denote  the  person  whose  interest  is 
concerned:  as, 

dedit  mihi  cultellum :    magno  mini  usui  erat,  he  gave  me  a 
pocket-knife  :  it  was  of  great  service  to  me. 

4.  The  ACCUSATIVE  (objective)  is  the  case  of  the  Direct 
Object,  and  is  used  after  most  prepositions :  as, 

pater   me   ad   se   vocavit  et  in  hortum  duxit,  [my]  father 
called  me  to  himt  and  led  me  into  the  garden. 


12  CASE. DECLENSION.  [7.     8:  I. 

5.  The  VOCATIVE  is  used  in  address :  as, 

hue  veni,  care  mi  filiole,  come  here,  my  dear  little  son. 

NOTE.  —  As  the  Vocative  is  independent  of  the  other  words  in  a 
sentence,  it  is  by  some  grammarians  not  reckoned  as  a  Case. 

6.  The   ABLATIVE   (by,  from,  with)  is  used  with  many 
verbs  and   prepositions,  especially  to   denote   separation   or 
instrument:  as, 

in  horto  ludebamus,  et  cultello  me  laesit,  we  were  playing  in 
the  garden,  and  he  hurt  me  with  a  knife. 

NOTE.  —  All,  excepting  the  nominative  and  vocative,  are  by  the 
ancient  grammarians  called  "  Oblique  Cases." 

7.  In  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  appear  traces 
of  another  case  (the  LOCATIVE),  denoting  the  place  where, — 
generally  the  same  in  form  as  the  dative  (§  55.  3.  c.)  :  as, 

Romae  vel  Athenis  esse  velim,   I  should  like  to  be  at  Eome 
or  Athens. 

8.    DECLENSION. 

1.  There  are  five  Declensions,  or  modes  of  declining  nouns. 
They  are  distinguished  by  the  termination  of  the  Genitive 
Singular,  and  by  the  final  letter  (characteristic)  of  the  Stem. 

DECL.  1.  Gen.  Sing,  ae   Characteristic  &  (anciently  a) 

„  2.          „  i(ius)        „  6 

,,  3.          ,,  is  ,,  X  or  a  Consonant 

„  4.          „  us  (uis)     „  ft 

„  5.          „  ei  „  e 

a.  The  stem  of  a  noun  may  be  found,  if  a  consonant-stem,  by 
omitting  the  case-ending;  if  a  vowel-stem,  by  substituting  for 
the  case-ending  the  characteristic  vowel. 

NOTE.  —  For  the  division  of  vowel  and  consonant-stems  in  the 
Third  Declension,  see  §  11. 

5.  The  Nominative  of  most  masculine  and  feminine  nouns 
(except  in  the  first  declension)  is  formed  from  the  Stem  by  adding  s. 

NOTE  1.  —  Many,  however,  end  in  o,  or  in  the  liquids  1,  n,  r,  — 
the  original  s  (sometimes  with  the  final  letter  also)  having  been  lost 
through  phonetic  decay.  In  some  (as  in  films)  the  stem-vowel  is 
modified  before  the  final  s ;  and  in  some,  as  in  ayer,  a  vowel  is 
inserted  in  the  stem. 


8:  2,3.] 


DECLENSION. 


13 


NOTE  2.  —  The  s  of  the  nominative  is  the  remnant  of  an  old 
demonstrative  sa,  which  is  found  (with  modifications)  in  the  Sanskrit 
personal  pronoun,  in  the  Greek  article,  and  in  the  English  she. 

2.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Declension :  — 

a.  The  Vocative  is  always  the  same  with  the  Nominative,  ex- 
cept in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  us  of  tftJB  second  declension. 

NOTE.  —  In  the  first  and  second  declensions  the  vocative  ends  in 
the  (modified)  stem-vowel.  Most  of  the  words  likely  to  be  used  in 
address  are  of  this  form ;  and,  in  practice,  few  other  words  have  a 
vocative. 

b.  In  Neuters,  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  always  alike, 
and  in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

c.  Except  in  some  neuters,  the  accusative  singular  always  ends 
in  in,  and  the  accusative  plural  in  s. 

d.  In  the  last  three  declensions  (and  in  a  few  cases  in  the 
others)  the  dative  singular  ends  in  i. 

^  e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 
/.   The  genitive  plural  always  ends  in  um. 

3.  Case-Endings.     The   original  terminations  of  the 
Cases,  in  Latin,  were  probably  the  following:  — 

Sing.  M.,  F.  N.  Plur.  M.,  F.          N. 

Norn,     s  (or  lost)  m,  -  es  a 

Gen.          os  (is)  um,  rum(sum) 

Dat.  i  ibus 

Ace.       m,  em  m,  -  es  a 

Abl.  eA  .        ibus 

NOTE.  —  These  became  so  worn  by  use,  and  so  united  with  the 
stem,  that  they  are  distinguishable  only  in  consonant-stems.  In  some 
instances,  one  case  was  substituted  for  another,  or  two  were  merged 
in  one.  The  combinations  are  given  below  as  case-endings.  The  name 
"  stem  "  is  sometimes,  conveniently  though  incorrectly,  given  to  that 
part  of  the  word — as  serv.  in  servus  —  which  precedes  the  case-ending. 


DECL.  i. 

ii. 

III. 

IV. 

v. 

Sing. 

N.  a        £,  as,  es 
G.  8B(ai)es 

us,  um  os,  on  eus 
i  (ius)     o,  u     ei 

s  -  (See  p.  23.) 
Is                 yos,  Ss 

tis,u 
us  (uis) 

es 
ei(e) 

D.  8B(ai) 

6(i) 

ei,  eo 

I 

ui(u) 

ei(e) 

A.  am     an.  en 

um           on 

ea 

em(im)   in,  yn   & 

um,  u 

em 

v.  &               e 

eV            a 

eu 

(as  nom.)    *,  y 

iis,  u 

es 

A.  a             g 

6 

eo 

e(i),  i 

u 

e 

Plur. 

N.  V.  SB 

i  a 

es,  a,  ia            £s 

us,  ua 

es 

G.  arum  (um) 

drum  (um, 

om)  on 

um,  ium 

uum 

erum 

D.  A.  Is  (abus) 

is  (dbus) 

ibus 

ibus(iibus) 

ebus 

A.  as 

OS 

es  (Is),  a,  ia        as 

us,  ua 

es 

N.B.    Rare  forms  in  parenthesis;  Greek  forms  in  italics. 


14  NOUNS.  —  FIRST   DECLENSION.  [9:   1,2,3. 

NOUNS. 


9,     FIRST  DECLENSION. 

The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ends 
in  a.    Latin  nouns  have  the  Nominative  like  the  stem. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nom.  Stella,  a  star.  stellae,  stars. 

Gen.  stellae,  of  a  star.  stellarum,  of  stars. 

Dat.  stellae,  to  a  star.  stellis,  to  stars. 

Ace.  stellam,  a  star.  Stellas,  stars. 

Yoc.  stella,  thou  star !  stellae,  ye  stars ! 

Abl.  stella  with  a  star.  stellis,  with  stars. 

1.  Gender.   Most  nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  Feminine. 
Nearly  all  the  exceptions  are  such  as  are  masculine  from  their  sig- 
nification :  as,  nauta,  sailor.     Also,  Hadria,  the  Adriatic. 

2.  Case  Forms.  — a.  The  genitive  singular  anciently  ended 
in  ai,  which  is  occasionally  found  in  a  few  authors  :  as,  aulai.    The 
same  ending  occurs  in  the  dative,  but  only  as  a  diphthong. 

b.  There  is  also  an  old  genitive  in  as,  found  in  the  word  familias 
used  in  certain  combinations,  as,  pater  (mater,  filius,  filia)  famil- 
ias, father  of  a  family,  §*c. 

c.  The  Locative  form  for  the  singular  ends  in  ae,  and  for  the 
plural  in  is :  as,  Romae,  Athenis. 

d.  The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  found  in  um  instead  of 
arum,  especially  in  compounds  with  -c51a  and  -gena,  signifying 
dwelling  and  descent :  as,  caelicblum,  of  the  heavenly  ones. 

e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  dea,  goddess,  filia,  daughter, 
liberta,  freed-woman,  equa,  mare,  mula,  she-mule,  end  in  an  older 
form  -abus.    But,  except  when  the  two  sexes  (as  in  wills,  &c.) 
are  mentioned  together,  the  form  in  is  is  also  used. 

3.  Greek  Nouns.  —  Some    Greek    nouns    (chiefly  proper 
names)  end  in  as,  es  (M.),  and  e  (F.)  in  the  nominative,  and  an 
or  en  in  the  accusative ;    those  in  e  have  the  genitive   in    es 
(stem  a  or  e) :  as, 

comet  (XL.).  laurel  (F.). 

N.  cometes  (a)  daphne  JEneas  Anchises 

G.  cometas  daphnes  (SB)  JEnese  Anchlsae 

D.  cometaa  daphne  (ee)  JEneaB  Anchisse 

Ac.  cometen(am)  daphnen  JEnean  (am)      Anchisen 

V.  cometa  daphne  JEnea  (a)  Anchise  (a) 

Ab.  cometa(e)  daphne  (a)  .^Dnea  Anchise  (a) 


10:  i,2,3.] 


SECOND    DECLENSION. 


15 


NOTE.  —  This  form  is  found  only  in  the  singular ;  the  plural  is 
regular :  as,  cometce,  arum,  &c.  It  includes  (besides  proper  names) 
about  thirty -five  words,  several  being  names  of  plants ;  among  others 
the  following,  those  marked  t  having  also  regular  forms  in  a:  — 
*bule,  council^  geometres,  geometer ;  f  gram matice,  grammar;  harpe, 
sickle;  magice,  magic;  fmusice,  music;  fode,  ode;  pandectes, 
repertory;  f  patriarchies,  patriarch;  t prophetes,  prophet ;  sophistes, 
sophist;  ttetrarches,  tetrarch ;  thymele,  leader' s-stand ;  t  tiaras,  tiara. 

10.     SECOND  DECLENSION. 

The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  ends 
in  o  (as  of  vir,  viro-,  and  of  servus,  servo-). 

NOTE.  —  This  form  is  an  original  a-stem,  to  which  the  a-stem  of 
the  first  declension  is  the  corresponding  feminine. 

1.  The  Nominative  is  formed  from  the  Stem  by  adding  s 
(in  neuters  m),  the  characteristic  6  being  weakened  to  u. 

2.  In  most  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  ro-,  the  S  is  not 
added,  but  the  0  is  lost,  e  being  inserted  before  r. 

Thus  ager,  field  (stem  agro-),  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  <rypos. 
The  exceptions  are,  hesperus,  humerus,  juniperus,  morus,  numerus,  uterus. 

SINGULAR. 


Boy. 

Book. 

Slave. 

Gift. 

Nom. 

puer 

liber 

serviis  (5s) 

domim 

Gen. 

pueri 

libri 

servi 

doni 

Dat. 

puero 

libro 

servo 

dono 

Ace. 

puerum 

librum 

servum  (om) 

donum 

Voc. 

puer 

.     liber 

serve 

donum 

Abl. 

puero 

libro 

ser\5 

dono 

PLURAL. 

Norn. 

pueri 

libri 

servi 

dona 

Gen. 

puerorum 

librorum 

servorum 

donorum 

Dat. 

pueris 

libris 

servis 

donis 

Ace. 

pueros 

libros 

servos 

dona 

Voc. 

pueri 

libri 

servi 

dona 

Abl. 

pueris 

libris 

servis 

donis 

NOTE.  —  The  old 

form  os,  om  (for 

us,  um),  is  sometimes  used 

after  u 

or  v  :   as,  servos,  servom  (§  1.  2. 

6.). 

3.  Gender.  —  Nouns  ending  in  us  (os),  er,  ir,  are  Mascu- 
line (exc.  on  p.  16) ;  those  ending  in  um  (on)  are  Neuter.  (But 
which  stems  are  M.  or  N.  can  only  be  learned  from  the  Dictionary.) 


16  SECOND    DECLENSION.  [10:  4,  5,  6. 

a.  But  names  of  towns  in  us  (os)  are  Feminine :  as,  Corin- 
thus.     Also,  arctus  (os),  the  Polar  Bear;  alvus,  belly ;  carba- 
sus,    linen   (plural   carbasa,    sails,  N.);    c61asr  distaff;  hiimus, 
ground ;   vaiinus,   winnow  ing-shovel ;  with  many  names  of  Plants 
and  Gems. 

b.  The  following  are  Neuter :    pelagus,  sea ;  virus,  poison ; 
vulgus  (rarely  M.),  the  crowd.     Their  accusative,  as  of  all  neuters, 
is  the  same  as  the  nominative. 

4.  Case  Forms,  a.  The  Locative  form  for  the  singular  of 
this  declension  ends  in  i:  as,  humi,  on  the  ground;  Corinthi,  at 
Corinth.  For  the  plural,  is:  as,  Philippis,  at  Philippi. 

b.  The  genitive  of  nouns  in  ius  or  ium  is  correctly  written 
with  a  single  i:  as,  fill,  of  a  son;  inge'ni,  of  genius. 

The  same  contraction  occurs  with  the  gen.  sing,  and  the  dat. 
and  abl.  plur.  of  nouns  in  aius  and  eius :  as,  Grais,  Pompei. 

c.  Proper  names  in  ius  lose  e  in  the  vocative :  as,  Vergi'li ; 
also,  filius,  son,  genius,  divine  guardian ;  and  the  possessive  meus, 

•my:  as,  audi,  mi  fili,  hear,  my  son. 

d.  Greek  names  in  ius  have  the  vocative  le;   and  adjectives 
derived  from  proper   names  —  as   Lacedaemouius  —  also  form 
the  vocative  in  ie. 

e.  In  the  genitive  plural,  um  (or,  after  v,  om)  is  often  found 
for  orum,  especially  in  poets. 

/.  Deus,  god,  has  vocative  deus  ;  plural,  nominative  and  voc- 
ative dei  or  di  (dii) ;  dative  and  ablative  deis  or  dis  (diis). 

For  the  genitive  plural  deorum,  divum  or  divom  (from 
divus)  is  often  used. 

^  5«  The  following  stems  in  Sro,  in  which  e  belongs  to  the  stem, 
retain  e  throughout:  puer,  boy ;  gener,  son-in-law;  socer,  father- 
in-law  ;  vesper,  evening ;  with  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger :  as, 
lucifer,  -fe"rif  light-bringer ;  armiger,  -geri,  armor^bearer. 

a.  Vir,  man,  has  the  genitive  viri ;  the  adjective  satur,  sated, 
has  saturi ;  vesper  has  abl.  vespere  (loc.  vesperi). 

b.  Liber,  a   name  of  Bacchus,  also  has  Liberi ;  so,  too,  the 
pi  ir.  liberi,  children. 

>^  6.  The  following,  which  insert  e,  are  declined  like  liber: 
ager,  field;  aper,  boar;  arbiter,  judge;  auster,  south-wind; 
caper,  goat;  coluber,  snake;  conger,  sea-eel;  culter,  knife; 
faber,  smith;  fiber,  beaver;  geometer,  geometer ;  magister,  mas- 
ter ;  minister,  servant ;  oleaster,  wild-olive ;  onager  (grus),  wild- 
ass;  scomber  (brus),  mackerel. 


11,  I.]  THIRD    DECLENSION.  17 

7.  Greek  Nouns,  a.  Many  Greek  names  in  eus,  as  Or- 
pheus (being  of  the  third  declension  in  Greek),  have  gen.  ei 
or  eos,  dat.  ei;  ace.  ea;  voc.  eu;  abl.  eo. 

b.  Many  in  es,  belonging  to  the  third  declension,  have  also  a 
gen.  in  i:  as,  Thucydidi 

c.  Some  Greek  names  in  er  have  a  form  in  us :  as,  Teucer, 
Teucrus. 

d.  About  twenty  words  have  the  Greek  ending  6s  (M.  or  r.) 
or  6n  (N.):   as,  lotos,  water-lily;  parelion,  mock-sun.    Among 
these  are  the  following :  — 

Barbitos  (on),  lyre;  miltos,  cinnabar;  mythos,  fable ;  nomos, 
district;  rhythmos,  rhythm;  scopes,  aim;  spodos  (F.),  dross. 

11.    THIRD  DECLENSION. 

Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  are  most  conveni- 
ently classed  according  to  their  Stems,  whether  ending 
in  a  vowel,  a  liquid,  or  a  mute. 

I.  VOWEL-STEMS. 

1.  Vowel-stems  of  this  declension  end  in  i.    Thus  that  of 
turris  is  turri- ;  and  that  of  mare,  mari-. 

a.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  parisyllabic ;  that  is,  the  oblique 
cases  of  the  singular  have  no  more  syllables  than  the  nominative. 
(For  exceptions  in  al,  ar,  see  2,  c.) 

b.  A  few  stems  ending  in  u-,  as  of  grus,  sus,  were  treated  as 
consonant-stems.     (See  HI.  4,  a.) 

2.  The  Nominative,  except  in  neuters,  is  formed  from  the 
stem  by  adding  S. 

a.  About  thirty  nouns  (as  nubes)  change  i  to  e  in  the  nom- 
inative   (Compare  Note,  p.  22). 

These  are  acindces,  alces,  ccedes,  cautes,  clades,  compdges,  contages, 
crates,  fames,  feles,Jides,  labes,  meles,  moles,  nubes,  proles,  propdges,  sedes, 
sepes,  sordes,  strayes,  suboles,  sudes,  tabes,  torques,  tudes,  vates,  vehes,  vetres. 

b.  The  nominative  of  a  few  stems  in  ri-  does  not  add  s,  but  loses 
i,  inserting  e  before  r.    These  are  imber,  linter,  uter,  venter. 

c.  The  nominative  of  neuters  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  with  the 
change  of  i  to  e.     But,  when  i  is  preceded  by  al  or  ar,  the  e  is 
lost  (except  in  collar  e,  mare,  navale,  tibiale). 

NOTE.  —  This  latter  class  were  originally  neuters  of  adjectives  in 
alls,  aris  ;  and,  when  used  as  adjectives,  retain  the  e.  They  are  the 
following :  animal,  cervical,  cubital,  puteal,  toral,  tribunal ;  calcar,  cochlear, 
exemplary  lacunart  laquear,  lumlnar,  palear,  pulvlnar,  torcular,  vectlgal. 


18 


THIRD    DECLENSION. 


[11,  I. 


s/ 

SINGULAR. 

Tower  (F.). 

Cloud  (F.). 

Sea  (  N.). 

Nom. 

turris 

nubes 

mare 

Gen. 

turris 

nubis 

maris 

Dat. 

turri 

nubi 

mari 

Ace. 

turrim  (em) 

nubem 

marS 

Voc. 

turris 

nubes 

mare 

Abl. 

turri  (e) 

nube 

mari 

Spur  (N.). 

calcar 

calcaris 

calcari 

calcar 

calcar 

calcari 


PLURAL. 


Nom. 

turres 

nubes 

Gen. 

turrium 

nubium 

Dat. 

turribus 

nubibus 

Ace. 

turris  (es) 

nubes 

Voe. 

turres 

nubes 

Abl. 

turribus 

nubibus 

maria 

marium 

maribus 

maria 

maria 

maribus 


calcaria 

calcarium 

calcaribus 

calcaria 

calcaria 

calcaribus 


3.  Case  Forms,  a.  The  regular  form  of  the  accusative 
singular,  M.  and  F.,  is  im  (as  am,  um,  em  of  the  other  vowel- 
declensions).  But,  in  most  nouns,  this  was  supplanted  by  the  con- 
sonant-form em ;  and  it  is  only  retained  in  the  following :  — 

1.  Exclusively  (1)  in  Greek  nouns  and  names  of  rivers;   (2)  in 
burls,  cucumis,  ravis,  sitis,  tussis,  vis ;   (3)  in  adverbs  in  tim  (being  ace. 
of  nouns  in  tis),  with  partim  and  amussim  ; 

2.  Along  with  em  infebris,restis,  turris,  securis,  sementis,  and  (in 
one  or  two  passages)  in  many  other  words. 

&.  The  regular  form  of  the  ablative  singular  is  i  (as  in  the 
other  declensions  a,  6,  u,  e,  with  loss  of  the  original  d).  This 
was  also  supplanted  by  e,  and  retained  only  — 

1.  Exclusively  (1)  in  those  above  having  accusative  in  im;  also 
securis,  and  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :   cequalis,  annalis, 
aqualis,  consular  is,  gentilis,  molaris,  primipilaris,  tribulis  ;    (2)  in  neuters 
(as  above),  except  baccar,  jubar,  and  sometimes  (in  verse)  mare,  rete; 

2.  Along  with  e  in  avis,  clavis,  febris,  finis,  ignis  (always  aqua  et 
igni  interdict),  imber,  navis,  ovis,  pelvis,  puppis,  sementis,  strigilis,  turris; 
and  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :   affinis,  bipennis,  canalis, 
familiaris,  natalis,  rivalis,  sapiens,  triremis,  vocalis. 

3.  The  ablative  of  fames,  hunger,  is  always  of  the  Fifth  declen- 
sion.    The  defective  mane,  morning,  has  sometimes  abl.  mani. 

4.  Most  names   of  towns   in  e  —  as    Prceneste,    Ccere  —  and    the 
mountain  Soracte,  have  the  ablative  in  e. 


11,  H.]  THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  LIQUID    STEMS.  19 

c.  The   regular  nominative  plural  would  be  is,   but  this   is 
rarely  found.     The   regular   accusative  is   is    common,  but   not 
exclusively  used  in  any  word. 

d.  The  regular  genitive  plural  ium  is  retained  by  all  except 
the  following:  — 

(1)  ambages  and  volucris  (always  um) ;  (2)  vates  (commonly  urn)  ; 
(3)  apis,  ccedes,  clades,  suboles  (rarely  um) ;  (4)  cams,  juvenis,  mensis,  had 
not  originally  vowel-stems,  and  retain  um ;  but  mensis  has  both. 

4.  Greek  Nouns.  —  A  few  Greek  nouns  in  is  have  the  ace. 
im  or  in,  voc.  i,  abl.  i. 

Many  in  es  have  forms  of  the  First  or  Second  Declension :  as, 
Achilles,  gen.  ei  or  i,  dat.  i,  ace.  en,  ea,  voc.  e,  abl.  i. 

NOTE.  —  Nouns  such  as  urbs,  pars,  having  the  genitive  plural  ium 
and  the  accusative  (occasionally)  is,  were  originally  vowel-stems. 

II.    LIQUID  STEMS. 

In  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  liquid  (1,  n,  r),  the  nom- 
inative has  no  termination,  but  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  except 
when  modified  as  follows :  — 

a.  Final  n  of  the  stem  is  dropped  in  masculines  and  feminines, 
except  some  Greek  nouns  :  as,  leon-is,  leo ;   legion-is,  legio. 

b.  Stems  ending  in  din-,  gin-  (mostly  feminine)  retain  in  the 
nominative  an  original  o :  as,  virgo.     Tfyose  in  in-  preceded  by 
any  other  consonant  retain  an  original  e :  as,  carmen,  inis,  N.  ; 
cornicen,  mis,  M.     (Exceptions  iv.  2,  6.) 

c.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  tr  retain  in  the  nominative  an 
original  e:   as,  pater  (compare  i.  2,  b.). 

d.  In  neuters  whose  stem  ends  in  er,  Sr,  fir,  the  r  was  originally 
s,  which  is  retained  in  the  nominative,  6  of  the  stem  being  weak- 
ened into  ii:  as,  opus,   eris:  corpus,    oris.     A  few  masc.  and 
fern,  stems  also  retain  s.     (Exceptions  iv.  2,  6.) 

e.  Stems  in  11,  rr,  lose  one  of  these  liquids  in  the  nominative. 
/.    The  following  have  gen.  plur.  ium:   glis,  mas,  ren,  mus. 

SING.     Consul.     PLUR.  j  SING.      -Name.      PLUR. 

Nom.  consul  consules  nSmen  nomina 

Gen.  consulis  consulum  nomfnis  nominum 

Dat.  consuli  consulibus  nomini  nominibus 

Ace.  consulem  consules  nomen  nomina 

Voc.  consul  consules  nomen  nomina 

Abl.  consule  consulibus  nomine  nominibus 


20  THIRD    DECLENSION.  -  MUTE    STEMS.  [11,111. 

Honor,  M.  .        Lion,  M.     Father,  M.       Tree,  F.        Maiden,  F.  Work,  N. 
Sing. 

N.  V.       h5n6r          leo  pater        arbor          virgo  opus 

G.  honoris       leonjs       patris       arbdris       virgmis  operis 

D.  honor!         leoni         patri         arbor!         virgin!  operi 

A.  honorem    leonem    patrem    arb5rem    virginem  opus 

A.  honore        leone        patre        arb6re        virgme  opere 

Plur. 

N.  A.  V.  honores      leones      patres      arbSres      virgines  opera 

G.  honorum    leonum    patrum    arbSrum    virginum  operum 

D.  Ab.     honoribus  leonibus  patribus  arboribus  virginibus  operibus 


III.    MUTE  STEMS. 

Masculine  or  feminine  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Mute 
form  the  nominative  by  adding  s.  Neuters  have  for  nomina- 
tive the  simple  stem. 

NOTE.  —  If  the  stem  ends  in  two  consonants,  the  genitive  plural 
generally  has  ium  (n.  8,  N.).  Some  of  these,  originally  i-stems, 
have  also  an  old  nominative  in  is  :  as,  trabis,  urbis. 

1.  Labial.   If  the  mute  is  a  labial  (b,  p),  s  is  simply 
added  to  the  stem. 

a.  Stems  in  ip-  retain  in  the  nominative  an  original  e,  the 
vowel  having  been  weakened  in  the  other  cases  :  as,  princeps,  ipis. 

&.  Most  stems  in  cip-  (M.)  are  compounds  of  the  root  cap  (in 
capio)  take:  as,  auceps  (avi-ceps),  bird-catcher. 

In  these  the  stem  sometimes  has  the  form  cup-,  as  aucupis. 

c.  The  only  noun  whose  stem  ends  in  in  is  hiemps,  winter. 
(For  the  insertion  of  p,  see  note,  foot  of  p.  3.) 

SING.   City,  F.  PLUR.  SING.         Chief.  PLUR. 

Norn,  urbs  urbes  princeps  principes 

Gen.  urbis  urbium  principis  princlpum 

Dat.  urbi  urbibus  principi  principibus 

Ace.  urbem  urbes  principem  principes 

Voc.  urbs  urbes  princeps  principes 

Abl.  urbe  urbibus  principe  principibus 

2.  Lingual.   If  the  mute  is  a  lingual  (d,  t),  it  is  sup- 
pressed before  s. 

a.  Stems  in  it-  (M.  or  F.)  retain  in  the  nominative  an  original 
e  :  as,  hospgs,  itis.     (In  a  few,  as  comes,  the  e  is  not  original.) 

NOTE.  —  The  only  nominative  in't  is  caput,  ttis. 

b.  Neuter  stems  ending  in  two  consonants,  and  those  ending 
in  at-  (Greek  nouns),  drop  the  final  lingual  in  the  nominative  :  as, 
cor,  cordis;   poema,  atis. 


11,111.]  THIRD    DECENSION. MUTE    STEMS.  21 

SING.       Guard.      PLUR.  SING.   Companion.  PLUR. 


Nom. 

custos             custodes 

comes             comltes 

Gen. 

custodis           custodum 

comitis            comftum 

Dat. 

custodi            custodibus 

comiti             cormtibus 

Ace. 

custodem        custodes 

comitem         comites 

Voc. 

custos              custodes 

comes             comftes 

Abl. 

custode           custodibus 

comite             comitibus 

Sing. 
N.  V. 

Age,  F.      Heart,  M.       Stone,  M. 
eetas          cor             lapis 

Family,  F.    Head,  N.      Poem,  N. 
gens           caput        poema 

G. 

SBtatis       cordis        lapidis 

gentis        capitis      poematis 

D. 

setati         cordi          lapidi 

genti          capiti        poemati 

A. 

setatem    cor             lapidem 

gent  em     caput        poema 

A. 

setate(i)  corde         lapide 

gente         capite       poemate 

Plur. 

N.  A.  V. 

eetates      corda         lapides 

gentes        capita       poemata 

G. 
D.  Ab. 

setatum  (ium)            lapidum 
setatibus  cordibus  lapidibus 

gentium    capitum   poematum 
gentibus   capitibus  poematis 

(or  ibus) 

c.  Case-forms.     Some  nouns  of  lingual  stems  have  forms 
of  the  vowel-declension. 

1.  Participles  used  as  nouns,  and  a  few  others  originally  i-stems, 
occasionally  have  the  ablative  in  i :   as,  continenti,  cetati,  parti,  sorti. 

2.  Stems  in  tat-  (originally  i-stems),  nt-  (participles  used  as  nouns), 
d  or  t  preceded  by  a  consonant,  —  also  dis,  lis,  and  pons, —  regularly 
have  the  genitive  plural  ium. 

3.  Names  denoting  birth  or  abode,  with  stems  in  at-,  it-  (originally 
adjectives),  with  penates,  optimates,  regularly  have  the  gen.  plur.  ium. 

d.  Greek  neuters  (as  poema),  with  nom.  sing,  in  a,  frequently 
end  the  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  in  is,  and  rarely  the  gen.  in  orum. 

3.  Palatal.  If  the  mute  is  a  palatal  (c,  g),  it  unites 
with  s  in  the  nominative,  forming  x. 

a.  Stems  in  ic-  (short  i)  have  nom.  in  ex,  and  are  chiefly  mas- 
culine ;  those  in  ic-  (long  i)  retain  i,  and  are  feminine. 

&.  In  nix,  nivis,  snow,  the  nom.  retains  a  palatal  lost  in  the 
other  cases  (original  stem  snig-,  compare  ningit) ;  supellex 
(-ectilis)  is  partly  a  lingual,  partly  an  i-stem. 

SING.    Peak,  M.    PLUR.  SING.    Raven,  F.    PLUR. 

Nom.  apex  apfces  cornix  cornices 

Gen.  apicis  aplcum  cormcis  cornlcum 

Dat.  apici  apicibus  cornlci  cornlcibus 

Ace.  apicem  apices  cornlcem  cornices 

Voc.  apex  apices  cornix  cornices 

Abl.  apice  aptcibus  cornice  cornlcibus 


22 


THIRD  DECLENSION:   MUTE  STEMS.        [11:  in. 


Sing. 

Peace,  p. 

"•King,  M. 

Light,  P. 

Fruit,  p. 

Citadel,  P. 

Throat. 

N. 

pax 

rex 

lux 

[frux] 

arx 



G. 

pacis 

regis 

lucis 

frugis 

arcis 



D. 

paci 

regi 

luci 

frugi 

arci 



Ac. 

pacem 

regem 

lucem 

frugem 

arcem 



Ab. 

pace 

rege 

luce 

fruge 

arce 

fauce 

Plur. 

N.  A.  V. 

paces 

reges 

luces 

fruges 

arces 

fauces 

G. 



regum 



frugum 

arcium 

faucium 

D.  Ab. 

pacibus 

regibus 

lucibus 

frugibus 

arcibus 

faucibus 

c.  Case-forms.  A  few  monosyllables,  as  faux  (def.),  arx, 
have  gen.  plur.  ium ;  in  lux,  an  abl.  luci  occurs  rarely. 

4.  Peculiar  Forms.  In  many  nouns  the  stem  is  vari- 
ously modified  in  the  nominative. 

a.  The  vowel-stems   gru-,   su-,    simply  add   s,   retaining  the 
original  u ;   grus  'has  also  a  nom.  griiis ;   sus  has  in  pi.  subus. 

b.  In  bov-  (bou-),  the  diphthong  ou  becomes  6  (bos,  bbvis) ; 
in  nav-  (nau-)  an  i  is  added  (navis,  is) ;  in  J6v-(=Zei;f)  the  diph- 
thong becomes  u  in  Ju-piter  (pater),  gen.  Jbvis,  &c. 

c.  In  iter,  itineris  (N.),  jecur,  jecinoris  (N.),  the  nom.  has 
been  formed  from  a  shorter  stem ;    so  that  these  words  show  a 
combination  of  two  distinct  forms. 

d.  Of  the  many  original  s-stems,  only  vas,  vasis  (pi.  vasa, 
orum)  retains  its  proper  declension. 

NOTE.  —  Of  apparent  s-stems,  as  (assis)  is  an  i-stem ;  of  os,  ossis, 
the  original  stem  is  osti-  (cf.  OO-TCOV  and  Sanskrit  asthi} ;  while  the 
others  have  either  (1)  passed  into  r-stems  (changed  from  s)  in  most  of 
the  cases,  as  honor,  oris,  corpus,  oris  (see  liquid  stems] ;  or  (2)  have 
broken  down  into  i-stems,  as  moles  (cf.  molestus),  nubes  (Sanskrit 
nabhas),  sedes  (cf.  <-8os),  vis  (vires),  &c. 


Sing. 

Ox,  c. 

Snow,  P. 

Old  Man, 

M.  Flesh,  p. 

N. 

bos 

nix 

senex 

caro 

G. 

b6vis 

nivis 

senis 

carnis 

D. 

bdvi 

nivi 

seni 

carni 

A. 

bCvem 

nivem 

senem 

carne 

A. 

bQve 

nivS 

sSnS 

came 

Plur. 

N.  A. 

V.  bQves 

nives 

sSnes 

carnes 

G. 

b6um 



senum 



D.  A. 

bobus 

nivlbus 

senlbus 

carnibu 

(bubus) 

Bone,  N. 

6s 

ossis 

ossi 

6s 

osse 


Force.  P. 
VIS 

vis 

vim 
vi 


ossa  vires 

ossium       virium 
ossibus       viribus 


5.  The  Locative  form  for  nouns  of  the  Third  declension  emls, 
like  the  dative,  in  I;  sometimes,  like  the  ablative,   in  e:  as,  ruri, 
I/I   the   country ;    Karthagini,   at    Carthage ;    Tibiire  (Hor.),  at 
Tibur  ;  —  plural  in  ibus:  as,  Trallibus,  at  Tralles. 

6.  Greek  Nouns.    Many    nouns,    originally    Greek,  - — 
mostly  proper  names,  —  retain  Greek  forms  of  inflection. 

a.    Stems  in  in-  (i  long)  add  s  in  the  nominative,  omitting  n : 
as,  delphis  (but  also  delphin),  Salamis.     So  Phorcys. 


11:  IIL,  iv.]     THIRD  DECLENSION:  RULES  OF  GENDER.     23 

b.  Most  stems  in  id-  (nom.  is)  often  have  also  the  forms  of 
i-stems :  as,  tigris,  idis  (idos)  or  is;  ace.  idem  (Ida)  or  im;  abl. 
ide  or  i.     But  many,  including  most  feminine  proper  names,  have 
ace.  idem   (ida),  abl.  ide, —  not  im  and  i.     These   follow  the 
forms  in  Greek,  which  depend  on  the  place  of  the  accent. 

c.  Stems  in  6n-  sometimes  retain  n:   as,  Agamemnon  (or 
Agamemno),  onis,  ace.  ona. 

d.  Stems  in  ont-  form  the  nom.  in  on:   as,  horizon,  Xeiio- 
phon  ;  but  a  few  are  occasionally  latinized  into  on-  (nom.  o) :  as, 
Draco,  onis. 

e.  Stems  in  ant-,  ent-,  have  nom.  in  as,  is :    as,  adamas, 
antis ;  Simois,  entis.    So  a  few  in  unt-  (contr.  from  cent-)  have 
us :   as,  Trapezus,  untis.     Occasionally  the  Latin  form  of  nom- 
inative is  also  found :  as,  Atlans,  elephans. 

/.  Case- Forms. — Many  Greek  nouns  (especially  in  the 
poets)  have  gen.  6s,  ace.  a;  plur.  nom.  es,  aec.  as:  as,  aer, 
aether,  crater,  hero  (ois),  lampas  (adis  or  ados),  lynx  (cis 
or  c6s),  nais  (idos),  Orpheus  (eos). 

g.  A  few  in  ys  have  ace.  yn,  voc.  y ;  abl.  ye :  as,  chelys, 
yn,  y ;  Capys,  yos,  yn,  y,  ye. 

h.  Several  feminine  names  in  6  have  gen.  sing,  us,  all  the 
other  cases  ending  in  o ;  they  may  also  have  regular  forms :  as, 
Dido;  gen.  Didonis  or  Did  us;  dat.  Didoni  or  Dido,  &c. 

IV.    RULES  OF  GENDER. 

1.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Gender  of  nouns 
of  the  third  declension,  classed  according  to  the  termination 
of  the  nominative. 

NOTE.  —  Rules  of  gender  are  mostly  only  rules  of  memory,  as 
there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  the  form  and  gender.  In 
fact,  most  nouns  could  originally  be  inflected  in  all  genders. 

^    a.  Masculine  endings  are  o,  or,  os,  er,  es  (idis,  itis). 

b.  Feminine  endings  are  as  (atis),  es  (is),  is,  ys,  x,  s  (follow- 
ing a  consonant) ;  also,  do,  go,  io  (abstract  and  collective) ,  and 
us  (udis,  utis). 

1    c.   Neuter  endings  are  a,  e,  i,  y ;   c,  1,  t ;    men  (minis) ;   ar, 
ur,  us  (eris,  6ris).     . 

2.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Gender  of  nouns 
of  the  third  declension,  classed  according  to  their  stems. 

NOTE.  —  See  the  Note  above.  But  the  preference  of  masc.  and 
fern,  (especially  fern.)  for  long  vowels  cannot  be  accidental  (compare 
long  a  of  1st  declension).  Some  affixes  also  prefer  one  or  another 
gender:  as,  tor  (originally  tar),  masculine ;  ti,  feminine ;  men  (origi- 
nally man),  neuter. 


24    THIRD  DECLENSION:  RULES  OF  GENDER.  [11:  iv 

a.  Vowel  Stems.  Stems  in  i,  having  a  in  the  nominative 
are  feminine,  except  those  mentioned  below  (3,  a).  Those  havinj 
nominative  in  S,  or  which  drop  the  e,  are  neuter. 

&.  Liquid  Stems.  Stems  in  1  are  masculine,  except  si] 
fel,  mel,  and  sometimes  sal  (N  ).  Those  in  mln  are  neuter,  ex 
cept  homo,  nemo,  flamen  (M.).  Others  in  in  are  masculine 
except  pollen^  unguen  (N.).  Those  in  en  are  masculine.  Tho,* 
in  din,  gin,  ion  (abstract  and  collective)  are  feminine.  Other 
in  on,  with  cardo,  margo,  ordo,  unio,  senio,  quaternio,  an 
masculine.  Those  in  r  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  are  neufer 
except  nearly  30  given  below.  Those  in  r  preceded  by  a  lon< 
vowel  are  masculine,  except  soror,  uxor,  glos,  tellus,  F.  ;  crus 
jus,  pus,  rus,  tus  (in  which  the  long  vowel  is  due  to  contraction),  N 

c.  Labial  Sterns  (no  neuters).     Stems  in  b   and   m   ar< 
feminine,   except    chalybs.      Those  in  p   are  chiefly  masculim 

(exceptions  below). 

d.  Lingual  Stems.     Stems  in  ad,  ed,  id,  nd,  ud,  aud,  ar< 
feminine,    except    dromas,    pes,    quadrupes,    obses,    praeses 
lapis  (M.).     Those  in    at,  ut,  are  feminine,  except   patrials   (a; 
Arpinas),  with  penates  and  optimates.     Those  in  ed,  et,  arc 
masculine,  except  merces  and  quies  with  its  compounds.     Those 
in  et,  it,  are  m,asculine,  except  abies,  merges,  seges,  teges  (F.) 
and  those  which  are  common  from  signification.     Those  in  at  arc 
neuter ;  those  in  nt  various  (see  List)  ;  those  in  It,  rt,  feminine 
(For  a  few  isolated  forms,  see  List.) 

e.  Palatal  Stems.     Stems  in  c  preceded  by  a   consonant 
or  long  vowel  are  feminine,  except  calx  (stone  or  heel),  decunx 
phoenix,  storax,  vervex,  M.     Those  in  c  preceded  by  a  shorl 
vowel  are  chiefly  masculine  (for  exceptions,  see  List) ;  those  in  g, 
masculine,  except  frux,  lex,  phalanx,  syrinx  (also  nix,  nivis), 

3.  The  following  are  the  Forms  of  Inflection  of  nouns  of 
the  Third  Declension,  classed  according  to  their  Stems. 

a.     Vowel-Stems. 

es,  is: — about  35  nouns  (original  s-stems,  list  p.  17),  feminine, 

except  tudes,  hammer ;  vates,  prophet ;  verres,  pig  (M.). 
Is,  is:  —  about  100  nouns,  chiefly  feminine. 


11:  iv.,  3-]  THIRD  DECLENSION:   FORMS  OP  INFLECTION.  25 

e,  is  :  —  upwards  of  20  nouns,  all  neuter. 

al,  alls;   ar,  arts: —  16,  neuter  (see  list,  page  17;  and  for  those 

in  ar,  aris,  see  Liquid  Stems), 
er,  ris :  —  imber,  shower ;  linter,  boat ;  uter,  bag ;  venter,  stom- 

ach^  — all  M.  except  linter,  which  is  commonly  F. 
PECULIAR: — grus,  gruis,  crane,  F.  ;    rhus,  rhois  (ace.  rhum), 
sumach,  M.  ;  sus,  suis,  hog,  c. ;    heros,  herois,  hero,  M.  ;    misy, 
yos,   truffle,    F.  ;    oxys,    yos,   sorrel,   F.  ;     cinnibari,    vermilion ; 
gummi,  gum;    sinapi,  mustard  (indecl.),  N. 

b.    Liquid  Stems. 

1,  lis :  —  9  nouns,  masculine,  except  sil,  ochre,  and  (sometimes) 
sal,  salt,  N. 

en,  enis: — hymen,  marriage;  ren,  kidney ;  splen  (enis),  spleen,  M. 

en,  mis: — 10  nouns,  M.  except  pollen,  Jlour ;  unguen,  oint- 
ment, N. 

men,  minis  (verbal):  —  about  30  nouns,  neuter;  but  flamen, 
priest,  M. 

on,   onis   (Greek) :  —  canon,    rule ;    daemon,   divinity ;    gnomon, 

index,  M.  ;  —  aedon,  nightingale;   alcyon,  kingfisher;   ancon, 

corner;  sindon, fine  linen,  F. 
o,  onis :  —  nearly  60  nouns,  all  masculine. 

io,  ionis  (material  objects,  &c.)  :  —  about  30  nouns,  masculine. 
io,  ionis  (abstract  and  collective)  : — upwards  of  50,  feminine. 
o,  inis:  —  homo,  man  ;  turbo,  whirlwind,  M.  ;  nemo,  no  one,  c. 
do,  dmis : — nearly  50  nouns,  feminine  excepting  cardo,  hinge; 

ordo,  rank,  M. 

go,  ginis :  —  about  30  nouns,  feminine. 
ar,  aris :  —  baccar,  valerian ;  jubar,  sunbeam ;  nectar,  nectar,  N.  ; 

lar,  household  god ;  salar,  trout,  M. 

gr,  ris:  —  accipiter,  hawk ;  frater,  brother;  pater,  father,  M.  ; 
mater,  mother. 

er,  eris  (Greek) :  —  crater,  cup ;  halter,  dumb-bell ;  prester,  water- 
spout, M. 

er,  eris :  —  acipenser,  hawk ;  aer,  air ;  aether,  ether ;  anser,  goose ; 

asser,  stake ;    aster,  star ;    cancer,  crab  ;   career,  dungeon ; 

later,  brick ;   passer,  sparrow,  M.  ;  —  mulier,  woman,  F.  ;  — 

acer,  maple ;  cadaver,  corpse ;  cicer,  vetch  ;  papaver,  poppy ; 

piper,  pepper  ;  tuber,  hump  ;  uber,  udder ;  verber,  lash,  N. 
is,  eris:  —  cinis,  ashes;  cucumis,  cucumber;  pulvis,  dust;  vomis, 

ploughshare,  M. 
5r  (os),  oris :  —  nearly  70  nouns  (besides  many  denoting  the  agent, 

formed  upon  verb-stems),  all  masculine,  except  soror,  sister ; 

uxor,  wife. 


26  THIRD  DECLENSION:  FORMS  OF  INFLECTION.  [11:  iv.,  3. 

or,  8ris:  —  castor,  beaver ;   rhetor,  rhetorician,  M.  ; —  arbor,  tree, 

F.  ; — ador,  fine-wheat ;  aequor,  level;  marmor,  marble,  N. 
6s,  oris: —  flos,  flower ;  mos,  custom  ;  ros,  dew,  M.  ;  — glos,  sister- 
in-law,  F.  ;  —  os,  mouth,  N. 
ur,  6ris:  —  ebur,  ivory;   femur,  thigh;  jecur,  liver;    robur  (or), 

strength,  N. 

iir,  uris: — 9  masculine;  with  fulgur,  thunderbolt;  murmur,  mur- 
mur ;  sulphur,  brimstone,  N. 
us,  eris: —  13  neuter;  also,  Venus,  F. 
us,  oris  :  — 14  nouns,  neuter,  except  lepus,  hare,  M. 
us,  uris:  —  mus,  mouse,  M.  ;  —  tellus,  earth,  F.  ;  —  crus,  leg ;  jus, 

right ;  pus,  fester ;  rus,  country  ;  tus,  incense,  N. 
PECULIAR:  —  delphin,  mis,  dolphin;  sanguis  (en)  mis,  blood; 
senex,  senis,  old  man,  N.  ;  caro,  carnis,  flesh,  F,  ;  aes,  aeris,  cop- 
per; far,  farris,  corn ;  fel,  fellis,  gall;  mel,  mellis,  honey;  iter, 
itineris,  journey;  jecur,  jecinoris  (jecoris),  liver,  N.  ;  glis,-iris, 
dormouse,  M. 

c.    Labial. 

bs,    bis :  —  chalybs,   steel,  M.  ;  —  plebs,  people ;    scrobs,   ditch  ; 

trabs,  beam ;  urbs,  city,  F.  (original  i-stems). 
ms,  mis:  —  hiemps,  winter,  F. 
ps,  pis :  — 15  nouns,  masculine,  except  forceps,  pincers ;  merops, 

bee-eater ;   ops,  help ;  stips,  gift;   stirps,  stock,  F. 

d.    Lingual. 

as,  adis  (Greek) :  — 14  nouns,  feminine,  except  dromas,  drome- 
dary ;  vas,  surety,  M. 

es,  edis :  —  cupes,  epicure ;  heres,  heir ;  praes,  surety,  M.  ;  — 
merces,  pay,  F. 

es,  edis;  —  pes,  foot;  quadrupes,  quadruped,  M.  ; — compes, 
fetter,  F. 

is,  idis:  —  obses,  hostage;  praeses,  chief,  c. 

is,  idis :  —  nearly  40  nouns,  mostly  Greek,  feminine,  except  lapis, 

stone,  M. 

os,  odis :  —  custos,  guardian,  M. 

6s,  otis :  —  nepos,  grandson,  M.  ;  cos,  whetstone  ;   dos,  dowry,  F. 
us,  udis:  —  incus,  anvil;  palus,  marsh;  subscus,  dovetail;  with 

fraus,  fraud ;  laus,  praise ;  pecus,  udis,  sheep,  F. 

a,  atis  (Greek)  :  —  nearly  20  nouns,  neuter. 

as,  atis:  —  about  20  nouns  (besides  derivatives),  feminine;  also, 
anas,  atis,  duck. 

es,  etis:  —  celes,  race-horse;  lebes,  kettle;  magnes,  magnet,  M.  ; 
—  quies,  requies,  rest ;  inquies,  unrest,  F. 


11:  iv.,  3-]  THIRD  DECLENSION:  FORMS  OF  INFLECTION.  27 

es,  etis:  —  aries,  ram;  interpres,  interpreter;  paries,  house-wall, 

M.  ;  —  abies,^r;  seges,  crop  ;  teges,  mat,  F. 

es,  itis :  —  about  20  nouns,  masculine  (or  common  from  significa- 
tion) . 
us,  utis: — juventus,  youth;  senectus,  old  age;  servitus,  slavery; 

virtus,  virtue,  F. 

ns,  ndis:  —  frons,  leaf;    glans,  acorn;  juglans,  walnut,  F. 
ns,  ntis :  —  nearly  20  (besides  many  participial  nouns) ,  common, 
except  dens,  tooth;  fons,  fountain;   mons,  mountain;  pons, 
bridge,  M.  ; —  frons,  brow;  gens,  nation;  lens,  lentile;  mens, 
mind,  F. 
rs,    rtis    (originally  i-steins) : — ars,   art;    cohors,  cohort;  fors, 

chance ;  mors,  death ;   sors,  lot,  F. 
ys,  ydis :  —  chelys,  tortoise ;  chlamys,  cloak,  F. 

PECULIAR:  —  as,  assis,  penny,  M.; —  lis,  litis,  lawsuit;  nox, 
noctis,  night;  puls,  pultis,  pottage,  F.  ;  —  caput,  itis,  head ;  cor, 
cordis,  heart;  hepar,  ads,  liver;  os,  ossis,  bone;  vas,  vasis,  ves- 
sel, N.  ;  also,  compounds  of  -pus,  -pSdis  (M.),  Gr.  for  pes,foot. 

e.    Palatal. 

ax,  acis :  —  anthrax,  coal ;  corax,  raven ;  frax  (pl.)»  dregs  ;  pan- 
ax,  panacea ;  scolopax,  woodcock,  M.  ;  —  fax,  torch ;  styrax, 
a  gum,  F. 

ax,  acis:  —  cnodax,  pivot;  cordax,  a  dance ;  thorax,  breastplate, 
M.  ;  —  pax,  peace,  F. 

ex,  icis :  —  upwards  of  40  nouns,  masculine,  except  carex, 
sedge ;  forfex,  shears ;  ilex,  holm  ;  imbrex,  tile ;  nex  (necis), 
violent  death ;  pellex,  concubine,  F. 

ix,  icis: —  about  30  nouns  (also,  larix,  icis,  larch),  feminine ; 
besides  many  in  trix,  regular  feminines  of  nouns  in  tpr. 

ox,  ocis :  —  celox,  cutter,  F. 

ux,  ucis  :  —  dux,  leader,  c. ;  — crux,  cross;  nux,  nut,  F. 

ux,  ucis  :  —  balux,  gold-dust ;  lux,  light,  F. 

x,  cis  :  —  arx,  tower ;  calx,  lime ;  falx,  pruning-knife ;  lynx,  lynx ; 
merx  (def.),  ivare,  F.  ;  —  calyx,  cup;  calx,  heel,  M. 

x,  gis:  —  conjux  (nx),  spouse;  grex,  herd;  remex,  rower;  rex, 
king,  M.  or  c. ;  —  frux  (def.),  fruit ;  lex,  law;  phalanx,  pha- 
lanx, F.,  with  a  few  rare  names  of  animals. 

Other  nouns  in  x  are  nix,  nivis,  mow;  nox,  noctis,  night;  su- 
pellex,  ectilis,  F.  ;  —  onyx,  ychis,  onyx,  M. 


*"  of  "^  \ 

i  v  IMP  VI  f^  ?*  T  171  W  1 


28  FOURTH   DECLENSION.  [12:   I,  2,  3. 

12.     FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ends 
in  u.  (Usually  this  is  weakened  to  i  before  -bus). 

1.  Masculine  and  feminine  nouns  form  the  nominative  by 
adding  s ;   neuters  have  for  nominative  the  simple  stem,  but 
with  u  (long). 

NOTE.  —  The  u  in  neuters  is  lengthened,  probably  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  m. 

SING.    Car(M.)     PLUR.  SING.  Knee  (N.)     PLUR. 

Nom.  currus  currus  genu  genua 

Gen.  currus  (uis)  curruum  genu  (us)  genuum 

Dat.  currui  (u)  curribus  genu  genibus 

Ace.  currum  currus  genu  genua 

Voc.  currus  currus  genu  genua 

Abl.  curru  curribus   '  gen^     '  genibus 

NOTE.  —  The  Genitive  singular  is  contracted  from  the  old  form  in 
uis.  It  is  sometimes  written  with  a  circumflex  :  as,  currus. 

2.  Gender*  —  a.     Most  nouns  in  us  are  masculine.     The 
following  are  feminine  :  —  acus,  needle ;  anus,  old  woman ;  colus, 
distaff;    dSmus,   house;    idus   (pi.),   the  Ides;    manus,  hand; 
nurus,  daughter-in-law  ; ,  porticus,  gallery  ;    quinquatrus,  feast 
of  Minerva ;   socrus,  mother-in-law ;    tribus,  tribe ;   with  a  few 
names  of  plants  and  trees.     Also,  rarely,  arcus,  penus,  specus. 

b.  The  only  neuters  are  cornu,  horn ;  genu,  knee ;  pecu  (def.), 
cattle  ;  veru,  spit.  (Some  others  are  mentioned  by  grammarians, 
and  the  form  ossua,  as  from  ossu,  occurs  in  inscriptions.) 

3.  Case-Forms.  — a.     An  original  genitive  in  os  is  some- 
times found :  as,  senatuos ;   and  an  old  (but  not  original)  geni- 

in  i  is  used  by  some  writers. 

&.   The  nominative  plural  has  rarely  the  form  uus. 

C.    The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  contracted  into  urn. 

d.  The  following  retain  the  regular  dative  and  ablative  plural 
in  iibus :   artus,  partus,  portus,  tribus,  veru ;  with  dissyllables 
in  -cus,  as  lacus. 

e.  D5mus,  house,  has  also  the  following  forms  of  the  second 
declension :    domi   (locative;  less  frequently    domui),  at  home ; 
dative  (rarely)  domo ;  ablative  domo  (rarely  domu) ;  plural  gen. 
domorum  (rarely  domuum) ;  accusative  domes  (or  domus). 


13:  I,  2.]  FIFTH   DECLENSION.  29 

/.  Most  names  of  plants,  with  colus,  distaff,  have  also  forms 
of  the  second  declension. 

4.  Most  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  are  formed  from  verb- 
stems,  with  the  suffix  -tus  :  as,  cantus,  song,  from  cano. 

a.  The  Supines  of  verbs  are  the  accusative  and  ablative  (or 
dative,  perhaps  both)  of  these  nouns. 

#.  Many  have  only  the  genitive,  or  the  genitive  and  ablative  : 
as,  jussu  (meo),  by  my  command  ;  so  injussu  (populi),  without 
the  people's  order.  Some  only  the  dative,  memoratui,  divisui. 

C.   The  remaining  nouns  of  this  declension  are  the  following  :  — 

sestus,  heat;  arcus,  bow;  artus,  joint;  coetus,  meeting  ;  fetus,  pro- 
duce; ftcus,Jig  ;  gradus,  step;  incestus,  incest;  lacus,  lake;  laurus, 
laurel;  myrtus,  myrtle;  penus  (def.),  provision;  pinus,  pine;  portus, 
port;  rictus,  gape;  senatus,  senate;  sinus,  fold,  bay;  situs,  dust; 
specus,  den;  tonitrus,  thunder;  tumultus,  tumult. 


NOTE.  —  Several  of  these  are  formed  upon  verb-stqms  not  in  use, 
or  obsolete.      '  * 


13.     FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ends 
in  e,  which  appears  in  all  the  cases. 

1.  The  nominative  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s. 

SING.  77um7(F.)pLUR.  SING.  Z%(M.)  PLUR.  Faith  (F.) 

Nom.  res  res  dies  dies  fides 

Gen.  rei  rerum  diei  (die)  dierum  fidei 

Dat.  rei  rebus  diei  (die)  diebus  fidei 

Ace.  rem  res  diem  dies  fidem 

Voc.  res  res  dies  dies  fides 

Abl.  re  rebus  die  diebus  fide 

NOTE. — The  e  is  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  dative  singular, 
when  not  preceded  by  i ;  viz.,  in  fides,  plebes,  spes,  res. 

2.  Gender,     All    nouns   of  this   declension   are   feminine, 
except  dies  and  meridies,  M. 

NOTE.  —  Dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  in 
phrases  indicating  a  fixed  time,  or  time  in  general :  as,  longa  dies, 
a  long  time  ;  constituta  die,  on  the  set  day ;  also  in  the  poets :  pulcra 
dies,  a  fair  day. 


30  IRREGULAR   NOUNS.  [13,  14:  I. 

3.  Case-Forms.     The  genitive  singular  anciently  ended  in 
es  (cf.  as  of  first  declension) ;    and  ei  was  sometimes  contracted 
into  i  or  e,  as  in  the  phrase  plebi-scitum,  peoples  decree  (Fr. 
plebiscite).     An  old  dative  in  i  or  e  also  occurs. 

4.  Several  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  have  also  forms  of  the 
first,  of  which  this  is  only  a  variety :  as,  niateria,  -ies,  timber ; 
saevitia,  -ies,  cruelty. 

NOTE.  —  Nouns  in  ies  (except  dies)  are  original  a-stems.  The 
others  are  probably  (excepting  res)  corrupted  s-stems,  like  moles, 
moles-tus ;  dies,  diurnus ;  spes,  spero.  Requies  (etis)  has  also  forms  of 
this  declension  ;  with  others,  as  saties  (for  satietas),  &c. 

5.  The  Locative  form  of  this  declension  is  represented  by  -e, 
as  in  hodie,  to-day ;  perendie,  day-after-to-morrow ;  die  quarti, 
the  fourth  day. 

6.  Of  about  forty  nouns  of  this  declension,  the  only  ones  com- 
plete in  all  their  parts  are  dies  and  res.     Most  want  the  plural, 
which  is,  however,  found  in  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  voca- 
tive, in  the  following:  acies,  effigies,  eluvies,  facies,  glacies, 
progenies,   series,  species,  spes. 


14,     IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

1.  Defective.  Many  nouns  are  defective  in  their  forms 
of  declension,  either  from  signification  or  by  accident  of  use. 

a.  Some  are  found  only  in  the  singular  (singularia  tantum), 
chiefly  abstract  nouns:  as,  pietas,  piety;  names  of  materials  and 
things  weighed  or  measured  (not  counted)  :  as,  aes,  copper,  far, 
coin ;  and  proper  names,  as  Cicero. 

Abstract  nouns  in  the  plural  may  denote  repetitions  or  instances, 
as  paces:  —  names  of  things  measured,  &c.,  kinds  or  samples,  as 
vina,  wines,  aera,  brazen  utensils ;  proper  names,  two  or  more  of 
the  same,  as  Scipiones.  So  Galliae,  the  two  Gauls,  CastSres, 
Castor  and  Pollux,  nives,  snowflakes,  soles,  days,  Joves,  images 
of  Jupiter,  palatia,  the  buildings  on  the  hill. 

b.  Some  are  found  only  in  the  Plural  (pluralia  tantum) :  these 
include   (1)  many  proper  names,  including  those  of  Festivals  and 
Games ;    (2)  names  of  classes :   as,  majores,  ancestors ;  liberi, 
children ;  penates,  household  gods  ;    (3)  the  following  from  sig- 
nification :  arma,  weapons  ;  artus,  joints  ;  divitiae,  riches ;  excu- 
biae,  night-guard ;   insidiae,  ambush ;   manes,  departed  spirits  ; 
minae,  threats ;   moenia,  fortifications,  and  a  few  others,  which 
are  very  rare. 


14:   I,  2.]  IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  31 

€.    The  following  are  defective  in  Case  :  — 

ambage,  §  F.  ;  astus  («.  and  p.),  astu,  M.  ;  cassem,  e,  §  M.  ;  dapis,  i,  em,e,  § 
F.  ;  dicam,  as,  F.  ;  dicionis,  i,  em,  e,  §  F.  ;  fauce,  §  F.  ;  foras,  is  (pi.),  F. ; 
fors,  forte,  F.  ;  frugis,  i,  em,  e,  §  F.  ;  glos,  F. ;  gratia,  as,  is,  F. ;  impetus, 
urn,  u,  M.  ;  injittas,  F.  ;  jut/era,  urn,  ibus,  N.  ;  lues,  em,  e,  F. ;  mane  (nom., 
ace  ,  and  abl. ),  N.  ;  nattci,  N.  ;  obice,  §  c. ;  opis,  em,  e,  §  p. ,  pondo  (abl.  or 
milec.),  N.  ;  precem,  e,  §  F.  ;  sentis,  em,  es,  ibus,  M.  ;  sordem,  e,  §  p. ;  spontis, 
e,  p. ;  suppetias,  F.  ;  venui,  urn,  M.  (o,  N.)  ;  vicis,  em,  e,  es,  ibus,  F.  The 
gen.  plur.  is  also  wanting  in  cor,  cos,fax,fcex,  lux,  nex,  os  (on's),pax,  pr&s, 
ros,  sal,  sol,  tus,  vas,  ver  ;  jura,  rura,  have  only  nom.  and  ace.  plur. 
§  Plural  complete. 

Many  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  occur  only  in  the  dative,  or 
in  the  ace.  and  abl.  (supines). 

The  following  neuters  are  indeclinable :  fas,  nefas,  instar,  necesse, 
nikil,  opus,  secus. 

Nouns  found  only  in  one  case  are  called  monoptotes;  in  two  cases, 
diptotes ;  in  three  cases,  triptotes. 

2.  Variable.  Many  nouns  vary  in  their  form  of  declen- 
sion, their  gender,  or  their  signification  under  different  forms. 

a.  Some  have  two  or  more  forms  of  Declension,  and  are  called 
heterodites :   as, 

Balnea  or  ce ;  carbasus  (F.),  pi., a  (N.)  ;  colus  (1st and 4th),  F.;  femur, 
dris  or  mis;  jugerum,  i,  or  abl.  e,  pi.  a,  urn,  N.  ;  margarlta,  CB  (p.),  or 
um,  i  (N.)  ;  Muiciber,  bri  or  beris :  munus,  en's,  pi.  munia  (maenia),  orum; 
pubes,  ens  ;  em,  e ;  penus,  i,  or  oris  ;  scevitia,  ce ;  -ies,  iei ;  -ittido,  inis,  F. ; 
sequester,  tri,  or  tris  ;  with  many  found  in  the  1st  and  5th  declensions, 
and  n  few  other  rare  forms. 

b.  Some  nouns  vary  in  Gender  (heterogeneous)  :  as, 

caelum  (x.),  pi.  caeli  (M.),  sky;  clipeus  (M.),  or  clipeum  (N.), 
shield;  frenum  (jn.),  pi.  freni  (M.),  rein. 

c.  Many  nouns  vary  in   meaning   as  they  are  found  in  the 
singular  or  plural :  as, 

aedes,  is  (F.),  temple;  sedes,  ium,  house. 

auxilium  (N.),  help  ;  auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

career  (M.),  dungeon;  carceres,  barriers  (of  a  race-course). 

castrum  (M.),fort ;  castra,  camp. 

copia  (F.), plenty;  cop ise,  troops. 

finis  (M.),  end ;  fines,  bounds,  territories. 

forum,  market-place;  fori,  gang-ways. 

gratia  (F.),  favor  ;  gratia?,  thanks. 

impedimentum  (N.),  hinderance ;   impedimenta,  baggage. 

littera  (F.),  letter  (of  alphabet) ;  Htterae,  epistle. 

locus  (M.),  place  [pi.  loca  (N.)]  ;  loci,  passages  in  books.    (In  early 

writers  this  is  the  regular  plural.) 
ludus,  sport ;  ludi,  public  games. 
opera,  task;  operae,  day-laborers  ("hands"). 


32  PROPER  NAMES.  [14,  15. 

opis  (F.  gen.),  help;  opes,  resources,  wealth. 
plaga  (F.),  region  [plaga,  blow] ;  plagge,  snares. 
rostrum,  beak  of  a  ship ;  rostra,  speaker's  platform. 
sal  (M.  or  N.),  salt ;  sales,  witticisms. 
tabella,  tablet;  tabellse,  documents. 

sestertius  (M.)  means  the  sum  of  2£  asses,  =  about  4  cents. 
sestertium  (N.)  means  the  sum  of  1000  sestertii,  =  about  $40. 
decies  sestertium  means  the  sum  of  1000  sestertia,  =  $40,000. 

d.  Sometimes  a  noun  in  combination  with  an  adjective  takes  a 
special  signification,  both  parts  being  regularly  inflected  :  as,  jus- 
jurandum,  juris jurandi,  oath;  respublica,  reipublicae,  com- 
monwealth. 

15.    PROPER  NAMES. 

1.  A  Roman  had  regularly  three  names.     Thus,  in  the 
name  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero,  we  have  — 

Marcus,  the  prcenomen,  or  personal  name ; 

Tullius,  the  nmnen;  i.e.,  name  of  the  Gens,  or  house,  whose 
original  head  was  Tullus  ;  this  name  is  properly  an  adjective ; 

Cicero,  the  cognomen,  or  family  name,  often  in  its  origin 
a  nickname,  —  in  this  case  from  cicer,  a  vetch,  or  small  pea. 

2.  A  fourth   or  fifth  name,  called  the  agnomen,  was 

sometimes  given. 

Thus  the  complete  name  of  Scipio  the  Younger  was  Publius 
Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  jEmilianus ;  Africanus  from  his  ex- 
ploits in  Africa;  JEmilianus  as  adopted  from  the  ^Emilian  gens. 

3.  Women  had  no  personal  names,  but  were  known  only 
by  that  of  their  gens. 

Thus  the  wife  of  Cicero  was  Terentia,  and  his  daughter  Tullia. 
A  younger  sister  would  have  been  called  Tullia  secunda  or  minor, 
and  so  on. 

4.  The  commonest  praenomens  are  thus  abbreviated :  — 

A.  Aulus.  L.  Lucius.  Q.  Quintus. 

C.  (G.)  Gaius  (Caius).          M.  Marcus.  Ser.  Servius. 
Cn.  (Gn.)  Gnaeus  (Cneius).     M\  Manius.  Sex.  Sextus. 

D.  Decimus.  Mam.  Mamercus.         Sp.  Spurius. 
K.  KJBSO.  N.  Numerius.  T.  Titus. 
.App.  Appius.                          P.  Publius.  Ti.  Tiberius. 


16:  i.]  ADJECTIVES:   INFLECTION.  33 


ADJECTIVES. 


16.     INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

ADJECTIVES  and  Participles  are  in  general  formed 
and  declined  like  Nouns,  differing  from  nouns  only  in 
their  use.  In  accordance  with  their  use,  they  distin- 
guish gender  by  different  forms  in  the  same  word. 
They  are  (1)  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  or 
(2)  of  the  third  declension. 

NOTE.  —  Latin  adjectives  and  participles  are  either  o-stems  with 
the  corresponding  feminine  a-stems  (originally  a  and  a),  or  i-stems. 
Many,  however,  were  originally  stems  in  u  or  a  consonant,  which 
passed  over,  in  all  or  most  of  their  cases,  into  the  i-declension,  for 
which  Latin  had  a  special  fondness.  (Compare  the  endings  es  and 
Is  of  the  Third  declension  with  Greek  €s  and  as;  navis  (nom.)  with 
the  Greek  vavs ;  animus  with  exanimis ;  cornu  with  bicornis ;  lingua 
with  bilingms ;  cor,  corde,  corda,  with  discors,  -di,  -dia,  -dium ;  suavis 
with  fjSiis;  ferens,  -entia,  with  <f>€pa>v,  -ovra.)  A  few,  which  in  other 
languages  are  nouns,  retain  the  consonant-form :  as,  veins  =  £ros, 
uber  =  ov0ap.  Comparatives  also  retain  the  consonant  form  in  most 
of  their  cases. 


1.    Stems  in  0  have  the  feminine  a  (originally  a).     They 

are  declined 

like  servus  (M.),  stella  (F.),  donum  (N.):  as, 

M. 

F. 

N. 

SING. 

Nom. 

cariis 

cara 

carum,  Dear. 

Gen. 

cari 

carae 

cari 

Dat. 

car5 

carae 

caro 

Ace. 

carum 

caram 

carum 

Voc. 

care 

cara 

carum 

Abl. 

caro 

cara 

car5 

PLUR. 

Nom. 

cari 

carae 

cara 

Gen. 

carorum 

cararum 

carorum 

Dat. 

caris 

caris 

caris 

Ace. 

caros 

caras 

cara 

Voc. 

cari 

carae 

cara 

Abl. 

caris 

caris 

caris 

— The  masc.  gen.  of  adjectives  in  ius  ends  in  ii,  and  the 
vocative  in  ie ;  not  in  i  as  in  nouns. 

2* 


ADJECTIVES  I    INFLECTION. 


[16:  I. 


a.  In  adjectives  of  stems  ending  in  ro-  preceded  by  S  or  a 
consonant  (also  satur),  the  masculine  nominative  is  formed  like 
puer  or  liber  (§  10;  :  as, 

Sing. 

N.    miser 

G.    miseri 

D.    misero 

Ac.  miserum 

V.    miser 

Ab  misero 

Plur. 

N.    miseri          miserae         misera 

G.    miserorum  miserarum  miserprum 

D     miseris         miseris         miseris 

Ac.  miserps        miseras        misera 

V.    miseri  miseree         misera 

Ab.  miseris         miseris         miseris 


ser,  wretched. 

Ater,  black. 

mis6ra 

miserum 

ater 

atra 

atrum 

miserse 

miseri 

atri 

atrse 

atri 

miserse 

misero 

atro 

atrse 

atro 

mis  e  ram 

miserum 

atrum 

atram 

atrum 

misera 

miseruin 

ater 

atra 

atrum 

misera 

misero 

atro 

atra 

atro 

atri  atrse         atra 

atrprum  atrarum  atrorum 
atris         atris         atris 
atrps        atras        atra 
atri  atrse         atra 

atris         atris         atris 


Stems  in  ero,  with  morigerus,  properus,  posterus,  have  the 
regular  nominative  in  us. 

Like  miser  are  declined  —  asper,  rough;  gibber,  hunched ;  lacer, 
torn;  liber,  free;  prosper  (erus) ,  favoring ;  satur  (ura,  urum),  sated; 
tener,  tender ;  with  compounds  of  -fer  and  -ger ;  also,  usually,  dexter, 
right.  In  these  the  e  belongs  to  the  stem ;  but  in  dexter  it  is  often 
syncopated. 

Like  ater  are  declined  —  seger,  sick ;  creber,  dose;  faber,  skilled; 
glaber,  sleek;  integer,  whole;  ludicer,  sportive;  macer,  lean ;  niger, 
dark;  noster,  our;  piger,  sluggish;  ruber,  red ;  sacer,  sacred;  sinis- 
ter, left;  teter,foul;  vafer,  shrewd;  vester,  your. 

The  following  feminines  lack  a  masculine  singular  nominative  :  — 
cetera,  infera,  postern,  supera.  They  are  rarely  found  in  the  singular 
except  in  certain  phrases  :  as,  postero  die.  A  feminine  ablative  in  o 
is  found  in  a  few  Greek  adjectives,  as  lectlcd  octophoro  ( Verr.  v.  11.). 

b.  The  following  (o-stems)  with  their  compounds  have  the 
genitive  singular  in  lus  and  the  dative  in  I  in  all  the  genders  :  — 

alms  (N.  aliud),  other,     rmllus,  none,     ullus,  any( with  negatives). 

alter,  other  (of  two).         solus,  alone,      unus,  one. 

neuter, -trius,  neither,     totus,  whole,     uter, -trius,  which  (of  two). 

I  NOTE.  —  The  suffix  ter,  in  alter,  uter,  neuter,  is  the  same  as  the 
Greek  comparative  suffix  -T€po(s).  The  stem  of  aliud  appears  in  early 
Latin  and  in  derivatives  as  all-,  in  the  forms  alls,  olid  (for  aliud), 
aliter,  &c. 

Of  these  the  singular  is  thus  declined  :  — 


M. 

F. 

.    N. 

N. 

solus 

sola 

solum 

G. 

solms 

solms 

solius 

D. 

soli 

soli 

soli 

A. 

solum 

sol  am 

solum 

A. 

solo 

sola 

solo 

N. 

alius 

alia 

aliud 

G. 

alius 

alius 

alius 

D. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

A. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

A. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

M. 

p. 

N. 

uter 

utra 

utrum 

utrms 

u  trius 

utrius 

utri 

utri 

utri 

utrum 

utram 

utrum 

utro 

utra 

utro 

alter 

altgra 

alterum 

alterius 

alterius 

alterius 

alteri 

alteri 

alteri 

alterum 

alteram 

alterum 

altero 

altera 

altero 

16:2.]       ADJECTIVES:  INFLECTION.          35 

NOTE.  —  These  words,  in  Greek  and  Sanskrit,  are  treated  as  pro- 
nouns ;  which  accords  with  the  pronominal  forms  of  the  genitive  in 
ius,  the  dative  in  i,  and  the  neuter  d  in  aliud.  The  i  in  the  geni- 
tive -ius,  though  long,  may  be  made  short  in  verse ;  and  alterius  is 
generally  accented  on  the  antepenult.  Instead  of  allus  (gen.),  alte- 
rius is  more  commonly  used.  In  compounds  —  as  alteruter  —  some- 
times both  parts  are  declined,  sometimes  only  the  latter. 

2.  Stems  in  i  —  distinguished  by  being  parisyttabic — 
have  properly  no  form  for  the  feminine,  and  hence  are  called 
adjectives  of  two  terminations.  In  the  neuter,  i  is  changed 
to  e.  They  are  declined  like  turris  (ace.  em)  and  mare. 

Sing.            M.,  Y.  Light.     N.                             M.      Keen.    F.  N. 

N.V.  levis  leve  acer         acris  acre 

G.  levis  levis  acris         acris  acris 

D.  levi  levi  acri           acri  acri 

Ac.  levem  leve  acrem       acrem  acre 

Ab.  levi  levi  acri           acri  acri 

Plur. 

N.V.  leves  levia  acres        acres  acria 

G.  levium  levium  acrium     acrium  acrium 

D.  levibus  levibus  acribus    acribus  acribus 

Ac.  leves  (is)  levia  acres  (is)  acres  (is)  acria 

Ab.  levibus  levibus  acribus    acribus  acribus 

a.  Several  stems  in  ri-  form  the  masc.  nom.  in  er  (as  acer, 
compare  §  11,  i.  2,  6.) .     These  are  the  following :  — 

acer,  keen.  pedester,  on  foot. 

alacer,  eager.  puter,  rotten. 

campester,  of  the  plain.  saluber,  wholesome. 

celeber,  famous.  Silvester,  wooded. 

equester,  of  horsemen.  terrester,  of  the  land. 

paluster,  marshy.  volucer,  winged. 

Also  celer,  celeris,  celere,  swift;   and,  in  certain  phrases,  the 
names  of  months  in  -ber. 

NOTE.  —  This  formation  is  not  original ;  and  hence,  in  the  poets, 
and  in  early  Latin,  either  the  masculine  or  feminine  form  of  these 
adjectives  was  used  for  both  genders.  In  others,  as  illustris,  lugiibris, 
medidcris,  muliebris,  there  is  no  separate  masculine  form. 

b.  Case-Forms.    These  adjectives,  as  true  i-stems,  retain 
i  in  the  abl.  singular,  the  neut.  plural  ia,  the  gen.  plur.  ium,  and 
often  in  the  ace.  plur.  is,  but  never  im  in  the  ace.  sing.   For  metri- 
cal reasons,  an  abl.  in  e  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry.   When  celer 
is  used  as  an  adjective,  it  has  the  regular  gen.  plur.  in  ium ;   as  a 
noun,  denoting  a  military  rank,  it  is  celerum ;  as  a  proper  name, 
it  has  the  abl.  in  e. 


36 


ADJECTIVES  :     INFLECTION. 


[16:  3. 


3.  The  remaining  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  have 
the  form  of  i-stems  in  the  ablative  singular  I,  the  plural 
neuter  ia,  and  genitive  ium.  In  other  cases  they  follow 
the  rule  of  consonant-stems. 

a.  In  adjectives  of  consonant-stems  (except  comparatives)  the 
nominative  singular  is  alike  for  all  genders :  hence  they  are  called 
adjectives  of  one  termination.  Except  of  stems  in  1  and  r,  it  is 
formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s :  as, 


Siny. 

M.  F.     Happy.     N. 

M.  F.       Calling.      N. 

N.V. 

felix 

felix 

vocans 

vocans 

Gen. 

felicis 

felicis 

vocantis 

vocantis 

Dat. 

felici 

felici 

vocanti 

vocanti 

Ace. 

felicem 

felix 

vocantem 

vocans 

Abl. 

felice     or 

felici 

vocante      or 

vocanti 

Plur. 

N.V. 

felices 

fellcia 

vocantes 

vocantia 

Gen. 

fellcium 

felicium 

vocantium 

vocantium 

Dat. 

felicibus 

felicibus 

vocantibus 

vocantibus 

Ace. 
Abl. 

fellces  (is) 
felicibus 

fellcia 
felicibus 

vocantes  (is) 
vocantibus 

vocantia 
vocantibus 

Other  examples  are  the  following :  — 


preeceps,  headlong 
preecipitis 
praecipiti 

prs3cipitem    prseceps 
praecipite 

prsBCipites    prsecipitia 
prsecipitium 
prsBcipitibus 

M.  F.  N. 

vetus,  old 
vetSris 
veteri 

veterem    vetus 
vetere  (i) 

vetSres    vetSra 
veterum 
veteribus 

NOTE.  —  The  regular  feminine  of  these  adjectives,  by  analogy  of 
cognate  languages,  would  end  in  ia  :  this  form  is  found  in  the  abstracts 
amentia,  desidia,  socordia,  frc.,  and  in  proper  names,  as  Florentia 
(cf.  Greek  <j>€pov<ra).  The  neuter  would  regularly  have  the  simple 
stem  (as  caput,  cor,  allec,  Greek  cj>€pov)  ;  but  in  all  except  liquid 
stems,  the  masc.  form  in  s  has  forced  itself  not  only  upon  the  neuter 
nominative,  but  upon  the  accusative  also,  where  it  is  wholly  abnormal. 


Sing. 

M.  F.              N. 

M.  F.            N. 

N.V. 

iens,  going 

par,  equal 

Gen. 

euntis 

paris 

Dat. 

eunti 

pari 

Ace. 

euntem    iens 

parem    par 

Abl. 

eunte  (i) 

pari 

Plur. 

N.A.V. 

euntes    euntia 

pares    paria 

Gen. 

euntium 

par  ium 

D.  Ab. 

euntibus 

paribus 

Sing. 

M.  F.              N. 

M.  F.           N. 

N.V. 

dives,  rick 

uber,  fertile 

Gen. 

divitis 

ubSris 

Dat. 

diviti 

uberi 

Ace. 

divitem    dives 

uberem    uber 

Abl! 

divite  (i) 

ubere  (i) 

Plur. 

N.A.V. 

divites    (ditia) 

uberes    ubera 

Gen 

divitum 

ubSrum 

D  Ab. 

divitibus 

uberibus 

16:  3-]  ADJECTIVES:   INFLECTION.  37 

A  few  of  these  forms,  used  as  nouns,  have  a  feminine  in  a :  as, 
clienta,  hospita,  inhospita,  with  the  appellation  Juno  Sospita. 

b.  The  stem  of  Comparatives  properly  ended  in  8s,  which 
became  or  in  all  cases  except  the  neuter  singular  (N.  A.  v.),  where 
s  is  retained,  and  8  is  changed  to  ii  (compare  honor,  oris ;  cor- 
pus, oris).    Thus  they  appear  to  have  two  terminations. 

Sing.           M.  F.      Dearer.      F.  M.  F.    More.    N. 

N.V.  carior  carius  <*"  plus 

Gen.  carioris  carioris  ^0**"  pluris 

Dat.  cariSri  cariori     ^..  pluri 

Ace.  cariorem  carius  plus 

Abl.  cariore      or  cariori  plure 
Plur. 

N.V.  cariores  cariora  phlres            plura(ia) 

Gen.  cariorum  cariorum  plurium          plurium 

Dat.  carioribus  carioribus  pluribus         pluribus 

Ace.  cariores  cariora  plures             plura 

Abl.  carioribus  carioribus  pluribus         pluribus 

NOTE.  —  The  neuter  sing,  plus  is  used  only  as  a  noun.  Its  deriva- 
tive complures,  several,  has  sometimes  neut.  plur.  compluria.  All 
other  comparatives  are  declined  like  carior. 

c.  Case  Forms.    1.   The  ablative  singular  of  these  adjec- 
tives commonly  ends  in  i ;   but,  when  used  as  nouns,  —  as  super- 
stes,  survivor, — they  have  e.     Participles  in  ns  used  as  such, — 
especially  in  the  Ablative  Absolute,  —  or  as  nouns,  regularly  have 
e ;  but  as  adjectives,  regularly  i.     (So  adjectives  in  ns  as  in  the 
phrase,  me  imprudente.) 

In  the  following,  e  is  the  regular  form  : — codes,  compos,  deses,  dives, 
hospes,  pauper,  particeps,  prceceps,  princeps,  superstes,  supplex ;  also  in 
patrials  (see  §  44),  with  stems  in  at-,  it-,  nt-,  rt-,  when  used  as 
nouns,  and  sometimes  as  adjectives. 

2.  The  genitive  plural  ends  commonly  in  ium,  and  the  accusa- 
tive often  in  is,  even  in  comparatives,  which  are  less  inclined  to 
the  i-declension. 

In  the  following,  the  gen.  plur.  ends  in  um:  —  always  in  dives, 
compos,  inops,  prcepes,  supplex,  and  compounds  of  pes ;  —  sometimes,  in 
poetry,  participles  in  ns.  In  vetus  (ens),  pubes  (em),  uber  (em),  which 
did  not  become  i-stems,  the  forms  e,  a,  um,  are  regular ;  but  uber  and 
vetus  rarely  have  the  abl.  in  i. 

3.  Several  are  declined  in  more  than  one  form  :  as,  gracilis  (us), 
hilaris  (us),  inermis  (us).     A  few  are  indecl.  or  defective  :  as, 

damnas  (esto,  sunto),  frugi  (dat.  of  advantage),  exspes  (only  nom.),exlex- 
(nom.  and  ace.),  mactus  (nom.  and  voc.),  nequam  (indecl.),  pernox  (per-, 
nocta],  potis,  pote  (indecl.  or  M.  F.  potis,  N.  pote),  primoris,  semineci,  &c. 


38  ADJECTIVES:   COMPARISON.  [17:  i. 

d.  Many  adjectives,  from  their  signification,  are  used  only  in 
the  masculine  or  feminine,  and  may  be  called  adjectives  of  common 
gender.     Such  are  adolescens,  youthful;   deses,  idis,  slothful; 
inops,  opis,  poor ;  sospes,  itis,  safe.     So  senex  and  juvenis 
may  be  called  masculine  adjectives. 

e.  Many  nouns  may  be  also  used  as  adjectives  (compare  §  47, 
3)  :  as,  pedes,  a  footman  or  on  foot ;  especially  nouns  in  tor  (M.) 
and  trix  (F.),  denoting  the  agent:  as,  victor  exercitus,  the  con- 
quering army ;  victrix  causa,  the  winning  cause. 

f.  Certain  cases  of  adjectives  are  regularly  used  as  Adverbs. 
These  are,  the  ace.  and  abl.  of  the  neuter  singular :  as,  multum, 
multo,    much ;  —  the   neuter   of    comparatives    (regularly)  :    as, 
carius,  more  dearly  ;  levins,  more  lightly  ;  —  together  with  those 
ending  in  e   for  o-stems,  and    ter  for  i-stems :  as,  care,  dearly  ; 
leviter,  lightly ;   acerrime,  most  eagerly. 

17.     COMPARISON. 
% 
1.  ^Regular  Comparison.    The  Comparative  is  formed 

by  adding,  for  the  nominative,  ior  (old  stem  ios),  neuter  ius, 
and  the  Superlative  by  adding  issimus,  a,  um  (old  iss- 
umus),  to  the  stem  of  the  Positive,  which  loses  its  final 
vowel :  as, 

carus,  dear ;  carior,  dearer ;  carissimus,  dearest. 

levis,  light ;  levior,  lighter ;  levissimus,  lightest. 

felix,  happy ;  felicior,  happier ;  felicissimus,  happiest. 

hebes,  dull ;  hebetior,  duller ;  hebetissimus,  dullest. 

NOTE.  —  The  comparative  suffix  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  uov,  or 
the  Sanskrit  iyans.  That  of  the  superlative  (issimus)  is  a  double 
form,  but  what  is  the  combination  is  not  certain;  perhaps  it  stands  for 
ios-timus.  (comp.  and  sup.),  or  possibly  for  ist-timus  (two  superla- 
tives). Strictly,  new  stems  are  thus  formed. 

a.  Adjectives  in  er  form  the  superlative  by  adding  -rimus  to 
the  nominative  (comparative  regular)  :  as, 

miser,  miserior,  miserrimus  ;  acer,  acrior,  acerrimus. 

So  vetus,  veterrimus  (for  comparative,  vetustior)  from  the  old 
form  veter ;  and,  rarely,  maturrimus  (for  maturissimus). 

&.  The  following  in  lis  add  -limus  to  the  stem  clipped  of  its 
vowel :  facilis,  easy ;  difficilis,  hard ;  similis,  like ;  dissimilis, 
unlike  ;  gracilis,  slender  ;  humilis,  love. 

NOTE.  —  The  endings  -limus  and  -rimus,  the  regular  superlatives, 
are  formed  by  assimilation  from  -timus  and  -simus. 


17:  i,  2.]  ADJECTIVES:   COMPARISON.  39 

C»  Compounds  in  -dicus  (saying),  -ficus  (doing),  -volus 
(willing),  take  the  forms  of  corresponding  participles  in  ns, 
which  were  anciently  used  as  adjectives :  as, 

maledicus,  slanderous,  maledicentior,  maledicentissimus. 

malevolus,  spiteful,  malevolentior,  malevolentissimus. 

d.  Adjectives  in  us  preceded  by  a  vowel  (except  u)   rarely 
have   forms   of  comparison,  but   are   compared  by  the   adverbs 
magis,  more;  maxime,  most :  as, 

idoneus,  fit ;  magis  idoneus,  maxime  idoneus. 
Most  derivatives  in  -icus,  -idus,  -alls,  -aris,  -ills,  -iilus,  -undus, 
-timus,  -mus,  -ivus,  -orus,  with  compounds,  as  degeiier,  inops, 

are  also  thus  compared. 

e.  Participles  when  used  as  adjectives  are  regularly  compared : 
as,  patientior,  patientissimus ;   apertior,  apertissimus. 

NOTE.  —  Many  adjectives  —  as  aureus,  golden  —  are  from  their 
meaning  incapable  of  comparison ;  but  each  language  has  its  own 
usage  in  this  respect.  Thus  niger,  black,  and  candid  us,  white,  are 
compared ;  but  not  ater  or  aibus,  meaning  absolute  black  or  white. 

2.  Irregular    Comparison.      Several   adjectives   are 
com  pared  "from  different  stems,  or  contain  irregular  forms  :  as, 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good,  better,  best. 
malus,  pejor,  pessimus,  bad,  worse,  worst. 
magnus,  major,  maximus,  great,  greater,  greatest. 
parvus,  minor,  minimus,  small,  less,  least. 
multum,  plus  (N.),  plurimum,  much,  more,  most. 
multi,  plures,  plurimi,  many,  more,  most.- 
nequam  (indecl.),  nequior,  nequissimus,  worthless, 
frugi  (indecl.),  frugalior,  frugalissimus,  useful,  worthy. 
dexter,  dexterior,  dextimus,  on  the  right,  handy. 

3.  Defective  Comparison.   The  following  are  formed 
from  roots  or  stems  not  used  as  adjectives  :  — 

"cis,  citra]  citerior,  citimus,  hither,  hithermost. 
in,  intra]  interior,  intimus,  inner,  inmost. 
"prae,  pro]  prior,  primus,  former,  first. 
jprope]  propior,  proximus,  nearer,  next. 
ultra]  ulterior,  ulttmus,  farther,  farthest. 

a.  Of  the  following  the  positive  forms  (originally  comparative) 
are  rare,  except  when  used  as  nouns,  generally  in  the  plural :  — 

[exterus]  exterior,  extremus  (extimus),  outer,  outmost. 

[inferus]  inferior,  infimus  (Tmus),  lower,  lowest. 

[posterus]  posterior,  postremus,  latter,  last. 

[superus]  superior,  supremus  or  summus,  higher,  highest. 
The  plurals,  exteri,  foreigners  ;   poster!,  posterity ;   superi,  the 
heavenly  gods ;  inferi,  those  below,  are  common. 


40  ADJECTIVES:   COMPARISON.  [17:4,5. 

6.  From  juvenis,  youth,  senex,  old  man,  are  formed  the  com- 
paratives junior,  younger,  senior,  older.  Instead  of  the  superla- 
tive, the  phrase  minimus  or  maximus  natu  is  used  (natu 
being  often  understood)  :  as, 

maximus  fratrum,  the  eldest  of  the  brothers  ;  but, 
senior  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  [two]  brothers. 

€•  In  the  following,  one  of  the  forms  of  comparison  is  want- 
ing:— 

1.  The    Positive  is   wanting  in   deterior,   deterrimus,   worse, 
ivorst;  ocior,  ocissimus,   swifter,    swiftest;    potior,  potissimus, 
more  and  most  preferable  [from  potis,  able']. 

2.  The  Comparative  is  wanting  in  bellus,  pretty ;  caesius,  gray ; 
falsus,  false ;    inclutus   (or   inclitus),  famous ;    invictus,  unsur- 
passed ;  invitus,  reluctant ;  novus,  new  (novissimum  agmen,  rear 
guard);  pius,  pious ;  sacer,  sacred;  vetus,  old;  and  most  deriva- 
tives in  His  and  bilis. 

3.  The  Superlative  is  not  found  in  actu5sus,  energetic;  alacer, 
eager ;  arcanus,  secret ;  diuturnus,  long-continued ;  exilis,  slender ; 
ingens,   huge ;   jejunus,   sterile ;    longinquus,   distant ;    opimus, 
rich  ;  proclivis,  inclined ;   satur,  sated  ;   segnis,  sluggish ;   serus, 
late;    supinus,  supine;    taciturnus,  silent;   tempest! vus,  season- 
able; viclnus,  neighboring. 

4.  Adverbs.   Adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  are  com- 
pared in  like  manner :  as, 

carus,  dear;  care,  carius,  carissime. 

miser,  wretched ;  misere  (iter),  miserius,  miserrime. 

levis,  light ;  leviter,  levius,  levissime. 

audax,  bold;  audacter,  audacius,  audacissime. 

bonus,  good;  bene,  melius,  optime. 

rn^alus,  bad;  male,  pejus,  pessime. 

Also,  cjiu,  long  (in  time),  diutius  diutissime  ;  —  potius,  rather, 
potissimum,  first-of-all ;  —  saepe,  often,  saepius  ;  —  satis,  enough, 
satins,  preferable;  —  secus,  othenvise,  secius,  worse;  —  multum 
(multo),  m&gis,  maxime,  much,  more,  most. 

5.  Signification.   Besides  their  regular  signification,  the 
forms  of  comparison  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

<i.  The  Comparative  denotes  a  considerable  or  excessive  degree 
of  a  quality :  as,  brevior,  rather  short;  audacior,  too  bold.  It 
is  used  instead  of  the  superlative  where  only  two  are  spoken  of: 
as,  melior  imperatorum,  the  best^  of  the  (two)  commanders. 

b.  The  Superlative  (of  eminence)  denotes  a  very  high  degree  of 
a  quality :  as,  maximus  numerus,  a  very  great  number.  With 
quam,  it  indicates  the  highest  degree :  as,  quam  plurimi,  as 
many  as  possible;  quam  maxime  potest  (quam  potest),  as 
much  as  can  be. 


17:  5-    18.]  NUMERALS.  41 

c.  With  quisque,  the  superlative  has  a  peculiar  signification  : 
thus    the  phrase   ditissimus  quisque    means,    all  the  richest; 
primus  quisque,  all  the  first  (each  in  his  order). 

d.  A  high  degree  of  a  quality  is  denoted  by  such  adverbs  as 
admodum,  valde,  very;  or  by  per  or  prae  in  composition:  as, 
permagnus,  very  great ;  praealtus,  very  high  (or  deep). 

e.  A  low  degree  is  indicated  by  sub  in  composition :  as,  sub- 
rusticus,  rather  countrified;    or  by  minus,   not  very;  minime, 
not  at  all;  parum,  not  enough ;  non  satis,  not  much. 


18.  NUMERALS. 

1.  Cardinal  and  Ordinal.   Cardinal  Numbers  answer 

to  the  interrogative  quot,  how  many ;    Ordinal  Numbers  to 
quotus,  which  in  order,  or  one  of  how  many. 

CARDINAL.  ORDINAL.                         ROMAN  NUMERALS. 

1.  unus,  una,  unum,  one.  primus,  a,  um,  first.  i. 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo,  two.  secundus  (alter),  second.       n. 

3.  tres,  tria,  three,  &>c.  tertius,  third,  &>c.  in. 

4.  quattuor  quartus  iv. 

5.  quinque  quintus  v. 

6.  sex  sextus  vi. 

7.  septem  septimus  vu. 

8.  octo  octavus  vm. 

9.  novem  nonus  ix. 

10.  decem  declmus  x. 

11.  undecim  undecimus  xi. 

12.  duodecim  duodecimus  xn. 

13.  tredecim  tertius  decimus  xin. 

14.  quattuordecim  quartus  decimus  xiv. 

15.  quindecim  quintus  decimus  xv. 

1 6.  sedecim  sextus  decimus  xvi. 

17.  septendecim  septimus  decimus  xvii. 

1 8.  duodeviginti(octodecim)          duodevicesimus  xvm. 

19.  undeviginti  (novendecim)         undevicesimus  xix. 

20.  viginti  vicesTmus  (vigesimus)  xx. 

21.  viginti  unus  or  unus  et  viginti  vicesimus  primus,  &c.  xxi. 
30.  triginta  tricesimus  xxx. 
40.  quadraginta  quadragesimus  XL. 
50.  quinquaginta  quinquagesimus  x.  or  L. 
60.  sexaginta  sexagesimus  LX. 
70.  septuaginta  septuagesimus  LXX. 
80.  octoginta  octogesimus  LXXX. 
90.  nonaginta  nonagesimus  xc. 

100.  centum  centesimus  c. 


42 


NUMERALS. 


[18:  I. 


ORDINAL. 

ducentesimus 

trecentesimus 

quadringentesimus 

quingentesimus 

sexcentesimus 

septi  ngentesimus 

octingentesimus 

nongentesimus 

millesimus 


quinquies  millesimus 
decies  millesimus 
centies  millesimus 


ROMAN  NUMERALS. 
CC. 

ccc. 
cccc. 
13,  or  D. 

DC. 
DCC. 
DCCC. 
DCCCC. 
CI3,  or  M. 
133. 
CC133. 


CARDINAL. 

200.  ducenti,  ae,  a 

300.  trecenti 

400.  quadringenti 

500.  quingenti 

600.  sexcenti 

700.  septingenti 

800.  octingenti 

900.  nongenti 

1000.  mille 

5000.  quinque  millia  (milia) 

10,000.  decem  millia  (milia) 

100,000.  centum  millia  (milia) 

NOTE.  —  The  Ordinals  (except  secundus,  tcrtius,  octavus)  are  formed 
by  means  of  the  same  suffixes  as  superlatives.  Thus  decimus  (com- 
pare the  form  infimus)  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  of  a  series  of  ten ; 
primus  is  a  superlative  of  pro;  the  forms  in  -tiis  (quartus,  quintus,  sex- 
tus)  may  be  compared  with  the  corresponding  Greek  forms  in  -TOS 
and  irpwTos,  superlative  of  irpd ;  nonus  is  contracted  from  novimus; 
while  the  others  have  the  regular  superlative  ending  simus.  Of  the 
exceptions,  secundus  is  a  participle  of  sequor  ;  and  alter  is  a  comparative 
form  (compare  -rcpos  in  Greek). 

a.  Unus,  una,  unum,  one,  is  declined  like  solus  (§  16,  i.), 
gen.  unms  and  dat.  uni  in  all  genders.     It  often  has  the  mean- 
ing of  same,  or  only.     It  is  used  in  the  plural  in  this  sense,  as  also 
to  agree  with  a  plural  noun  of  a  singular  meaning :  as,  una  castra, 
one  camp.     So  uni  et  alteri,  one  party  and  the  other. 

b.  Duo,  two  (also  ambo,  both) ,  is  thus  declined :  — 

duo 

duorum 

duobus 

duo 

duobus 

NOTE.  —  This  form  in  -o  is  a  remnant  of  the  dual  number,  which 
was  lost  in  Latin,  but  is  found  in  cognate  languages. 

c.  Tres,  tria,  three,  is  an  i-stem,  and  is  regularly  declined  like 
the  plural  of  le*vis.     The  other  cardinal  numbers,  up  to  centum 
(100),  are  indeclinable.     The  multiples  of  ten  are  compounds  of 
the  multiple,  with  a  fragment  of  decem :  as,  viginti  =  dui-ginta. 

NOTE.  —  The  forms  octodecim  (18),  novendecim  (19),  are  rare,  unde- 
viyinti,  duodeviginti,  &c.,  being  commonly  employed. 

d.  The  hundreds,  up  to  1000,  and  all  the  ordinals,  are  o-stems, 
and  are  regularly  declined  like  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second 
declension. 


Norn. 

duo 

duae 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

Dat. 

duobus 

duabus 

Ace. 
Abl. 

duos  (duo) 
duobus 

duas 
duabus 

20:  1,2.] 


DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS. 


45 


/.  To  the  personal  (and  sometimes  to/'the  adjective)  pronouns 
enclitics  are  joined  for  emphasis  :  — meu  to  all  the  pronouns  ;  -te 
to  tu;  -pte  to  the  abl.  sing,  of  the  adjectives,  and  in  early  Latin 
to  the  others :  as,  vosmetipsos  proditis/  you  betray  your  own 
very  selves ;  suopte  pondere,  by  its  own  weight. 

20.     DEMONSTRATIVE. 

1.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  hie,  this;  is,  ille, 
iste,  that ;  with  the  Intensive  ipse,  self,  and  idem,  same. 

NOTE.  —  These  are  combinations  of  o  and  i-stems,  which  are  not 
clearly  distinguishable.  Hie  is  a  compound  of  the  stem  ho-  with 
the  demonstrative  -ce,  which  appears  in  full  in  early  Latin  (hice), 
and  when  followed  by  the  enclitic  -ne  (hicine).  In  most  of  the  cases 
it  is  shortened  to  c,  and  in  many  lost;  but  it  is  appended  for  empha- 
sis to  those  that  do  not  regularly  retain  it  (hujusce).  In  early  Latin 
c  alone  is  retained  in  some  of  these  (horunc).  Ille  and  iste  are 
sometimes  found  with  the  same  enclitic  (illic,  istuc). 

a.  Ille  is  a  later  form  of  ollus  (olle),  which  is  sometimes  used 
by  the  poets ;  a  gen.  sing,  in  i,  ae,  i,  occurs  in  ille  and  iste. 

6.  Iste  is  sometimes  found  in  early  writers  in  the  form  ste,  &c., 
with  the  entire  loss  of  the  first  syllable ;  and  the  i  of  ipse  and 
ille  is  very  often  found  shortened. 

c.  Ipse  is  compounded  of  is  and  -pse  (for  pte,  from  the  same 
root  as  potis),  meaning  self.  The  first  part  was  originally  de- 
clined, as  in  reapse  (for  re  eapse),  in  fact.  An  old  form  ipsus 
occurs.  Idem  is  the  demonstrative  is  with  the  affix  -dem. 

2.  These  demonstratives  are  used  either  with  nouns  as 
Adjectives,  or  alone  as  Pronouns ;  and,  from  their  significa- 
tion, cannot  (except  ipse)  have  a  vocative. 

This.  That. 

Sing.          M.  F.                N.                         M.              F.                N. 

Nom.  hie  haec  hoc 

Gen.  hujus  hujus  hujus 

Dat.  huic  huic  huic 

Ace.  hunc  hanc  hoc 

Abl.  hoc  hac  hoc 


Plur.  These. 

Nom.  hi  hae  haec     • 

Gen.  horum  haruin  horum 

Dat.  his  his  his 

Ace.  hos  has  haec 

Abl.  his  his  his 


is  ea  id 

ejus         ejus  ejus 

ei  ei  ei 

eum        earn  id 

eo  ea  eo 

Those. 

ii  (ei)       eae  ea 

eorum     earum  eorum 

eis  or  iis 

eos          eas  ea 
eis  or  iis 


46 


DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS. 


[20:  2. 


SING.  M. 

N.  me 

G.  illms 

D.  illi 

A.  ilium 

V. 

A.  illo 


That. 

P. 

ilia 
illius 
illi 
illam 

mi 

Those. 


N. 

mud 

illius 

illi 

illud 

illo 


PLUR. 

N.    illi  illse  ilia 

G     illprum  illarum  illprum 

I),    illis  illis  illis 

A.    illos  iUas  iUa 


A!    illis 


illis 


iUis 


M. 

ipse 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsum 
ipse 
ipso 

ipsi 
ipsorum 
ipsis 
ipsos 
ipsi 
ipsis 

Self. 

F. 

ipsa 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsam 
ipsa 
ipso 

Selves. 
ipsse 
ipsarum 
ipsis 
ipsas 
ipsse 
ipsis 

N. 

ipsum 
ipsius 
ipsi 
ipsum 
ipsum 
ipso 

ipsa 
ipsorum 
ipsis 
ipsa 
ipsa 
ipsis 

The  Same. 


SIXG. 

N.    idem        eadem      Idem 
G.    ejusdem  ejusdem  ejusdem 
D.    eidem      eidem       eidem 
A.    eundem  eandem  idem 
A.    eodem     eadem      eodem 


PLUR. 

iidem          eaedem        eadem 
eorundem  earundem  eorundem 

eisdem  or  iisdem 
eosdem        easdem       eadem 

eisdem  or  iisdem 


a.  Hie  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  speaker  (in  time,  place, 
thought,  or  on  the  written  page)  ;  hence  called  the  demonstrative 
of  the  first  person.     It  is  sometimes  used  of  the  speaker  himself; 
sometimes  for  "  the  latter"  of  two  things  mentioned. 

b.  Ille  is  used  of  what  is  remote  (in  time,  &c.)  ;  hence  called 
the  demonstrative  of  the  third  person.     It  is  sometimes  used  to 
mean  "the  former";  also  (usually  following  its'  noun)  of  what  is 
famous  or  well-known  ;  often  /(especially  the  neuter  illud)  to  mean 
"  the  following.11  \? 


c.  Iste  is  used  of  what  is  between  the  two  others  in  remoteness  ; 
often  of  the  person  addressed,  —  hence  called  the  demonstrative  of 
the  second  person  ;  especially  of  one^  opponent,  frequently  imply- 
ing contempt. 

<?•  Is  is  a  weaker  demonstrative  than  the  others,  not  denoting 
any  special  object,  but  referring  to  one  just  mentioned,  or  to  be 
explained  by  a  relative.  It  is  used  oftener  than  the  others  as  a 
personal  pronoun  ;  and  is  often  merely  a  correlative  to  the  relative 
qui:  as,  eum  quern,  one  whom;  eum  consulem  qui  non  du- 
bitet  (Cic.),  a  consul  who  will  not  hesitate. 

e.  Ipse,  may  be  used  with  a  personal  pronoun,  as  nos  ipsi 
(nosmetipsi)  ,  we  ourselves:  or  independently  (the  verb  contain- 
ing the  pronoun),  as,  ipsi  adestis,  you  are  yourselves  present  ;  or 
with  a  noun,  as  ipsi  fontes  (Virg.),  the  very  fountains. 

NOTE.  —  In  English,  the  pronouns  himself,  &c.,  are  used  both  inten- 
sively (as,  he  will  come  himself),  or  reflexively  (as,  he  will  kill  "himself)  : 
in  Latin  the  former  would  be  translated  ipse  ;  the  latter  se,  or  sese. 


21:    I,  2.]  RELATIVE,    INTERROGATIVE,  AND    INDEFINITE.      47 


21.     EELATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  AND  INDEFIN-ITE. 

1.  The  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  pronouns 
are  the  same ;  viz.,  qui,  quis  (who,  who  ?  «rcy),  with  their 
compounds  and  derivatives. 

NOTE.  —  The  stem  has  two  forms,  quo-  and  qui-.  From  the  latter 
are  formed  quis,  quid,  quern,  quibus,  qul  (abl.),  while  qui,  qu<e,  are  prob- 
ably lengthened  forms  of  quo,  qua,  made  by  the  addition  of  the 
demonstrative  particle  i. 


Sing. 

M.                                       F. 

N. 

Nom. 

qui,  quis               quae 

qu6d,  quid 

Gen. 

cujus                    cujus 

cujus 

Dat. 

cui  (quoi)            cui 

cui 

Ace. 

quern                    quani 

quod 

Abl. 

quo  (qui)              qua 

quo 

Plur. 

Nom. 

qui                         quae 

quae  (qua) 

Gen. 

quorum                 quarum 

quorum 

Dat. 

quibus  or  quis 

(queis) 

Ace. 

quos                       quas 

quae  (qua) 

Abl. 

quibus  or  quis 

(queis) 

Case  Forms,  a.  The  Relative  has  always  qui  and  quod 
in  the  nom.  sing.  The  Interrogative  and  Indefinite  have  quis, 
quid  substantive,  and  qui,  quod  adjective.  But  quis  and  qui  are 
sometimes  used  for  each  other. 

b.  Old  forms  for  the  gen.  and  dat.  are  quoius,  quoi.     A  loca- 
tive cui  occurs  only  in  the  form  cuicuimodi,  of  whatever  sort. 

c.  The  form  qui  is  used  for  the  ablative  of  both  numbers  and  all 
genders ;  but  especially  as  an  adverb  (hoio,  by  which  way,  in  any 
way)^  and  in  the  combination  quicum,   as  interrogative   or  in- 
definite relative. 

cf.  A  nom.  plur.  ques  (stem  qui-)  is  found  in  early  Latin. 
The  dat.  and  abl.  quis  (stem  quo-)  is  old,  but  not  infrequent. 

e.  The  preposition  cum  is  joined  enclitically  to  all  forms  of  the 
ablative,  as  with  the  personal  pronouns. 

2.    The  stems  quo  and  qui  are  variously  compounded. 

a.  The  suffix  -cunque  (-cumque)  added  to  the  relative  makes 
an  Indefinite-relative,  which  is  declined  as  the  simple  word  :  as, 

quicumque,  quaecumque,  quodcumque,  whoever,  whatever. 

NOTE.  —  This  suffix,  with  the  same  meaning,  may  be  used  with 
any  relative:  as,  qualiscunque,  of  whatever  sort;  quandocuiique 
(quandoque),  whenever;  ubicuiique,  wherever. 


48        RELATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  AND    INDEFINITE.     [21:   2. 

b.  The  interrogative  form  doubled  also  makes  an  indefinite- 
relative  :  as,  quisquis,  whoever  (so  utut,  however,  ubiubi,  wher- 
ever). Of  quisquis  both  parts  are  declined,  but  the  feminine  is 
wanting :  as, 

Nom.       quisquis  (quiqui)      quidquid  (quicquid) 

Gen.  cujuscujus 

Dat.  cuicui 

Ace.        quemquem  quidquid  (quicquid) 

Abl.  quoquo 

PLUR.     !N"om.     quiqui          Dat.,  Abl.     quibusquibus 

This  compound  is  rare,  except  in  the  forms  quisquis,  quicquid, 
and  quoquo.  The  case-form  quamquam  is  used  as  a  conjunc- 
tion, although  (lit.  however).  Quiqui  is  an  early  form. 

c«  Indefinite  Compounds  are  the  following :  quispiam,  any ; 
quisquam,  any-at-all ;  quivis,  quilibet,  any-you-please ;  quidam, 
a,  a  certain.  Of  these  the  first  part  is  inflected  like  quis,  qui, 
with  quid  or  quod  in  the  neuter. 

NOTE.  —  The  form  -quam  is  from  the  stem  quo-,  perhaps  -piam 
also ;  but  if  so  it  must  be  dialectic  (compare  Oscan  pam  for  quam). 
In  quivis,  quilibet,  the  second  part  is  a  verb  (vis,  you  wish ;  libet, 
it  pleases).  They  have  the  accusative  case-forms  quam  vis,  quamli- 
bet  (however,  although),  used  as  adverbs  or  conjunctions. 

d.  In  aliquis,  any,  siquis,  if  any,  nequis,  lest  any,  ecquis, 
numquis,  whether  any,  the  second  part  is  declined  like  quis,  but 
having  qua  for  quae,  except  in  the  nom.  plur.  feminine.     Si  quis, 
ne  quis,  mini  quis,  are  better  written  separately.     The  simple 
form  quis  is  rare  except  in  these  combinations ;   and  the  com- 
pounds quispiam,  aliquis   (si  quis,  if  any  one ;  si   aliquis,  if 
some  one),  are  often  used  in  these,  being  rather  more  emphatic. 

NOTE.  —  Aliquis  is  compounded  with  ali-,  old  stem  of  alius,  but 
with  weakened  meaning.  Ecquis  is  compounded  with  en. 

e.  The  enclitic  -que  added  to  the  indefinite  gives  a  Universal : 
as,  quisque,  every  one ;  ubique,  everywhere  (so  uterque,  either  of 
two,   or  both).     Of  quisque  the  first  part  is  declined.     In  the 
compound  unusquisque,  both  parts  are  declined,  and  sometimes 
separated  by  other  words. 

/.  The  relative  and  interrogative  have  a  possessive  adjective 
cujus  (stem  cujo-),  whose;  and  a  patrial  cujas  (stem  cujat-), 
of  what  country. 

g.  Quantus,  how  great,  qualis,  of  what  sort,  are  derivative 
adjectives  from  the  same  stem,  and  are  used  as  interrogative 
or  relative,  corresponding  to  the  demonstratives  tantus,  talis. 
Quam,  how,  is  an  accusative  of  the  same  stem,  corresponding  to 
the  case-form  tarn,  so. 

h.  Quisquam,  with  ullus,  any,  unquam,  ever,  usquam,  any- 
where, are  chiefly  used  in  negative,  interrogative,  or  conditional 
sentences,  or  after  quam,  than;  sine,  without ;  vix,  scarcely. 


22.] 


CORRELATIVES. 


22.     CORRELATIVES. 

Many  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  adverbs  are  found  in  several 
corresponding  forms,  as,  demonstrative,  relative,  interrogative, 
and  indefinite.  These  are  called  CORRELATIVES.  Their 
forms  are  seen  in  the  following  Table:  — 


DEMONSTR. 

RELAX. 

INTERROG. 

INDEF.  REL. 

INDEF. 

is,  that 

qui 

quis  ? 

quisquis 

aliquis 

tantus,  so  great 

quantus 

quantus  ? 

* 

ali  quantus 

tails,  such 

qualis 

qualis  ? 

* 



ibi,  there 

ubi 

ubi? 

ubiubi 

alicubi 

eo,  thither 

quo 

quo  ? 

quoquo 

aliquo 

ea,  that  way 

qua 

qua? 

quaqua 

aliqua 

inde,  thence 

unde 

unde  ? 

'    * 

alicunde 

turn,  then 

quum,  cum 

quando  ? 

* 

aliquando 

tot,  so  many 

quot 

quot  ? 

quotquot 

aliquot 

toties,  so  often 

quoties 

quoties  ? 

* 

aliquoties 

*  Compounds  with  -cumque. 

a.  The  forms  tot,  quot,  aliquot,  totidem  (originally  toti), 
are  indeclinable,  and  may  take  any  gender,  number,  or  case  :  as, 

per  tot  annos,  tot  proeliis,  tot  imperatores  (Cic.),  so  many 
commanders,  for  so  many  years,  in  so  many  battles. 

b.  The  correlative  of  the  second  member  is  often  to  be  ren- 
dered simply  as :  thus, 

taiittim  argenti  quantum  aeris,  as  much  silver  as  copper. 

C.  A  frequent  form  of  correlative  is  found  in  the  ablatives  quo 
or  quanto,  by  how  much ;  eo  or  tanto,  by  so  much,  used  with 
comparatives  (rendered  in  English  the  .  .  the)  :  as, 

quo  magis  conatur,  eo  minus  discit,  the  more  he  tries  the  less 
he  learns. 

d.  Certain  adverbs  and  conjunctions  are  often  used  correla- 
tively:  as, 

et  .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and. 

ut  .  .  .  ita  (sic) ,  as  (while)  .  .  .  so  (yet). 

aut  (vel)  .  .  .  aut  (vel),  either ...  or. 

sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive,  whether  ...  or. 

tarn  .  .  .  quam,  so  (as)  .  .  .  as. 

cum  (turn)  .  .  .  turn,  both  .  .  .  and;  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

idem  .  .  .  qui,  the  same  .  .  .  as. 

NOTE. — For  the  reciprocal  use  of  alius  and  alter,  see  Syntax 
(§  47,  9). 


50  VERBS :    STRUCTURE.  [23 :  I,  2,  3. 

VERBS. 


23.     STRUCTURE. 

1.  The  forms  of  a  Latin  verb  are  the  following :  — 

a.  VOICES  :    Active  and  Passive. 

b*  MOODS  :   Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  Infinitive. 
c*  PARTICIPLES  :   Active,  Present  and  Future. 

Passive,  Perfect  and  Gerundive. 
d.  VERBAL  NOUNS  :  Gerund  and  Supine. 
e*  TENSES  :   Present,  Imperfect,  Future ;   Perfect,  Pluperfect, 
Future-Perfect. 

/.  There  are  also  separate  terminations  of  inflection  for  each 
of  the  three  Persons,  Singular  and  Plural  (§  28). 

NOTE.  —  The  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine  are  not 
strictly  parts  of  the  verb,  as  having  no  personal  terminations,  but 
having  the  form  and  (in  general)  the  construction  of  nouns.  They 
were,  however,  regarded  and  used  as  verbal  forms  by  the  Komans. 

2.  Special  forms  for  the  following  tenses  are  wanting  in 
certain  parts  of  the  verb :  — 

€l»  In  the  Subjunctive  mood,  the  future  and  future-perfect. 

NOTE.  —  These  are  wanting,  because  the  original  meaning  and 
most  of  the  uses  of  this  mood  are  future.  In  some  cases,  the  future 
participle  with  the  corresponding  tense  of  esse  is  used. 

b.  In  the  Passive  voice,  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future-per- 
fect, which  are  supplied  by  corresponding  tenses  of  esse,  to  be, 
with  the  Perfect  Participle. 

c.  In  the  Imperative  mood  only  two  tenses  are  found,  —present 
and  future.     In  the  Infinitive  only  the  present,  perfect,  and  future. 

3.  The  Active  and  Passive  voices  are  equivalent  to  the 
corresponding  English  forms,  except  that  the  tenses  of  the 
passive  are  used  with  more  exactness.     Thus  vocatur  means, 
he  is  [being]  called,  i.e.,  some  one  is  now  calling  him ;    voea- 
tns  est,  he  is  called,  i.e.,  the  action  is  now  over. 

NOTE.  —  The  passive  voice  often  has  a  reflexive  meaning,  as,  indiii- 
tur  vestem,  he  puts  on  his  clothes;  and  many  verbs -are  active  in  mean- 
ing though  passive  in  form.  (See  §  35,  "  Deponents.") 


24,  25.]  MOODS  —  PARTICIPLES.  51 

24,    MOODS. 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  for  direct  assertion  or  interroga- 
tion. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  chiefly  in  commands,  condi- 
tions, and  dependent  clauses. 

NOTE.  —  The  Latin  Subjunctive  is  usually  translated,  in  grammars, 
by  the  English  potential  forms,  may,  might,  could,  ivould,  &c.,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  Indicative,  because  the  English  has  no  subjunctive 
in  general  use.  But  the  subjunctive  is  used  in  many  cases  where  we 
use  the  indicative  ;  and  we  use  the  potential  in  many  cases  where  the 
Latin  employs  a  separate  verb.  Thus  1  may  write  (except  when  it 
follows  ut,  in  order  that]  is  not  scribam  (subj.),  but  licet  mihi  scri- 
bere ;  /  can  write  is  possum  scribere ;  /  would  write  is  scribam, 
scriberem,  or  scribere  velim  (vellem)  ;  I  should  write,  if,  frc.,  scri- 
berem  si  ...  or  (implying  duty)  oportet  me  scribere.  A  few  ex- 
amples of  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  maybe  seen  in  the  following  :  — 

eamus,  let  us  go.     ne  cunctemur,  let  us  not  linger. 

quid  marer,  why  should  I  delay  ? 

si  tardior  sim  iratus  sit,  if  1  should  be  too  late  he  would  be  angry. 

adsum  ut  videam,  I  am  here  to  see  [that  I  may  see]. 

imperat  ut  scribam,  he  orders  me  to  write. 

nescio  quid  scribam,  1  know  not  what  to  write. 

licet  eas,  you  may  go;  cave  cadas,  don't  fall. 

vereor  ne  eat,  Ifear  he  will  go  (vereor  ut,  1  fear  he  will  not). 

sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think. 

si  ita  esset  non  manerem,  if  it  were  so  1  would  not  stay. 

quge  cum  dixisset  abiit,  when  he  had  said  this  he  went  away. 

3.  The  Imperative  is  used  for  exhortation  or  command ; 
but  its  place  is  often  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive. 

4.  The  Infinitive  is  used  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  as  the 
subject  or  object  of  another  verb ;  but  often  takes  the  place 
of  one  of  the  other  moods. 

NOTE.  —  For  the  Syntax  of  the  Moods,  see  §  57. 

25,  PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Present  participle  has  the  same  meaning  as  the 
English   participle  in  -ing:    as,  vocans,   calling;   regentes, 
those  ruling.     (For  its  inflection,  see  §  16,   2.) 

2.  The  Future  participle  is  rarely  used,  except  with  tenses 
of  esse,  to  be   (see  §  40),  or  to  express  purpose  :   as,  urbs 
est  casura,  the  city  is  about  to  fall;  venit  auditurus,  he  came 
to  hear. 


52  GERUND    AND    SUPINE  -  TENSES.  [26,  27. 

3.  The  Perfect  participle  is  used  to  form  certain  tenses 
of  the  passive,  and  often  has  simply  an  adjective  meaning  : 
as,  vocatus  est,  he  was  (has  been)  called;  tectus,  sheltered  ; 
acceptus,  acceptable. 

NOTE.  —  There  is  no  perfect  active  or  present  passive  participle  in 
Latin.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponents,  however,  is  generally 
used  in  an  active  sense,  as  secutus,  having  followed.  In  other  cases 
some  different  construction  is  used  :  as,  cum  venisset,  having  come 
(when  he  had  come)  ;  equitatu  praemisso,  having  sent  forward  the  cav- 
alry (the  cavalry  having  been  sent  forward)  ;  duiii  verberatur,  while 
being  struck  (=  TUTTTOJI.SVOS). 

For  the  Syntax  of  these  participles,  see  §  72. 

4.  The  Gerundive  (sometimes  called  the  future  passive 
participle)  has,  with  tenses  of  esse,  the   meaning  ought  or 
must  (see  §  40)  :  as,  audiendus  est,  he  must  be  heard.     But, 
in  the  oblique  cases,  it  is  oftener  to  be  translated  as  if  it  were 
an  active  participle,  and  governed  the  word  it  agrees  with  :  as, 
ad  petendam  pacem,  to  seek  peace  (§  73). 


26.  GERUND  AND  SUPINE. 

1.  The  Gerund  is  the  neuter  singular  of  the  Gerundive. 
It  is  a  verbal  noun,  corresponding  to  the  English  participial 
noun  in  -ing:   as,  loquendi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  speaking. 

2.  The  Supines  are  the  accusative  and  ablative  (or  dative) 
of  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension  (§  12,  4,  a).     They 
are  generally  translated  by  the  English  Infinitive  of  purpose  : 
as,  venit  spectatum,  he  came  to  see  ;  mirabile  dictu,  wonder- 
ful to  tell. 

NOT*:.  —  The  Supine  in  turn  is  the  regular  Infinitive  in  Sanskrit. 

27.  TENSES. 

1.  The  tenses  of  a  Latin  verb  are  of  two  classes  :  (1) 
those  denoting  incomplete  action,  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and 
Future  ;  (2)  those  denoting  completed  action,  the  Perfect, 
Pluperfect,  and  Future-Perfect. 

Those  of  the  former  class,  together  with  the  Perfect,  are 
also  used  to  denote  indefinite  action. 


27:  2,  3,  4?  5-]  TENSES.  53 

2.  The  Present,  Future,  Pluperfect,  and  Future-Perfect 
have  the  same  meaning  as  the  corresponding  tenses  in  Eng- 
lish, but  are  distinguished  more  accurately  in  their  use :  as, 

diu  aegroto,  /  have  long  been  [and  still  am]  sick. 

cum  venero  scribam,  when  I  come  [shall  have  come]  I  will  write. 

3.  The  Perfect  and  Imperfect  are  both  used  to  denote 
past  time,  the  former  usually  to  tell  a  simple  fact ;  the  latter, 
a  continued  action,  or  a  condition  of  things.     The  Imperfect 
is  variously  rendered  in  English  :  as, 

dicebat,  he  said,  he  was  saying,  or  he  used  to  say ;  saepe  dicebat, 
he  would  often  say ;  dictitabat,  he  kept  saying. 

The  Perfect  has  two  separate  uses,  distinguished  as  definite  and 
historical,  corresponding  to  the  English  perfect  (compound) 
and  preterite  (imperfect)  :  as, 
vocavit,  he  has  called  (definite) ,  or  he  called  (historical) . 

NOTE.  —  In  Latin,  and  in  the  languages  derived  from  Latin  (as 
Italian  and  French),  there  are  two  past  tenses,  —  the  Perfect  or  Pret- 
erite (aorist),  which  merely  states  that  the  fact  took  place  ;  and  the  Im- 
perfect, which  is  used  for  description,  or  to  indicate  that  the  action  was 
in  progress.  In  the  Northern  languages  ( Germanic  or  Gothic,  includ- 
ing English),  the  same  tense  serves  for  both  :  as, 

longius  prosequi  vetuit,  quod  loci  naturam  ignorabat,  he  forbade 
to  follow  farther,  because  he  was  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  ground 
(B.  G.  v.  9.). 

4.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  are  supplied  in  the  Pas- 
sive voice  by  adding  the  corresponding  tenses  of  incomplete 
action  of  esse  to  the  Perfect  Participle :  as,  occisus  est,  he 
was  slain,  or,  he  has  been  slain. 

5.  The  tenses  of  a  Latin  verb  are  formed  upon  three  dif- 
ferent stems,  called  the  present,  the  perfect,  and  the  supine 

stems. 

a.  The  tenses  of  incomplete  action,  both  active  and  passive,  are 
formed  upon  the  Present  stem. 

b.  The  tenses  of  completed,  action  in  the  active  voice  are  formed 
upon  the  Perfect  stem. 

c.  The  perfect  participle,  which   is   used   in   the    tenses    of 
completed  action  in  the  passive  voice,  is  formed  upon  the  Supine 
stem. 


54  VERB    FORMS.  [28 :    I,  2. 


28.  VERB  FORMS. 

1.  Personal  endings.  Verbs  have  terminations  for 
each  of  the  three  persons,  both  singular  and  plural,  active  and 
passive.  These  terminations  are  fragments  of  old  pronouns, 
whose  signification  is  thus  added  to  that  of  the  verb-stem. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

SINGULAR.         PLURAL.  SINGULAR.         PLURAL. 

^f  1.     m          mus  r  mur 

2.  s  tis  ris         mini 

3.  t  nt  tur        ntur 

a.  The  present  and  perfect  indicative  have  lost  the  m,  and  end 
in  the  modified  stem-vowels  o  and  i.  Except  sum,  /  am,  and 
inquam,  I  say. 

&.  The  second  person  of  the  perfect  indicative  has  for  the  sin- 
gular sti,  and  for  the  plural  stis.  The  third  person  plural  has  an 
ending  of  verbal  origin,  erunt. 

C.  The  Imperative  has  special  terminations  : 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  2.  [lost]     Plur.  2.  te,  tote         Sing.  2.  re     PLur.  2.  mini 
3.     to  3.  nto  3.  tor  3.  ntor 

NOTE.  —  The  Passive  is  a  peculiar  Latin  middle  (or  reflexive) 
form,  made  by  adding  se  to  the  forms  of  the  active  voice,  with  some 
abrasion  of  their  endings  (the  original  form  of  se,  SVA,  was  not 
limited  to  the  third  person).  Thus  amor  —  amo-se,  amaris  =  amasise, 
amatur  =  amatise.  The  above  view  seems  the  most  probable,  in  spite 
of  some  objections.  The  ending  mini  in  the  second  person  plural 
of  the  passive  is  a  remnant  of  the  participial  form  found  in  the  Greek 


All  Latin  words  ending  in  t,  except  a  few  in  ot,  ut,  with  et,  at, 
sat,  are  third  persons  of  verbs  ;  all  in  nt  are  third  persons  plural. 
In  dumtaxat,  however,  licet,  although,  and  the  indefinite  pronouns  in 
-libet,  the  meanings  of  the  verbs  are  disguised. 

2.  Changes  of  Stem.  These  terminations  appear  in  all 
the  tenses  of  the  verb  ;  but  the  Stem  in  many  parts  is  variously 
modified  to  receive  them,  sometimes  by  changes  in  its  form, 
and  sometimes  by  additions  at  the  end. 

a.  The  Present  indicative  and  subjunctive,  the  Imperative, 
and  sometimes  the  Future,  add  the  personal  endings  directly  to 
the  present  stem,  with  or  without  change  of  vowel  :  as,  do,  das, 
dat  (stem  da-)  ;  vocem  (stem  voca-)  . 


28:   2,  3-]  VERB-FORMS.  55 

&,  The  Perfect  indicative  also  sometimes  adds  them  directly ; 
but  to  another  form  of  the  root  called  the  perfect  stem :  as,  dedi, 
dedisti,  dedit 

NOTE.  —  The  i  of  the  Perfect,  which  in  early  Latin  is  always  long 
(ei,  i,  e)  except  before  mus,  is  of  doubtful  origin.  It  is  treated  for 
convenience  as  part  of  the  stem,  as  it  is  in  dedi,  steti,  where  it  takes 
the  place  of  the  vowel  a.  In  the  suffixes  vi  (=  fui)  and  si  (=  Skr. 
dsa),  and  in  the  perfects  of  consonant-roots,  it  seems  to  be,  but  prob- 
ably is  not,  a  mere  connecting  vowel.  The  s  before  ti  and  tis  is 
also  anomalous.  Most  scholars  regard  it  as  a  remnant  of  es ;  but  it 
may  be,  like  the  others,  of  pronominal  origin. 

c.  All  other  true  verbal  forms  are  compounded  with  a  suffix  — 
originally   a  verb  —  which  contains   the    personal    endings:   as, 
vocav-eram,    vocav-ero,   voca-bo.      The  first  person  of  the 
Perfect,_thus  compounded,  produces  another  form  of  perfect  stem: 
as,  voca-vi 

d.  The    Present    Infinitive  Active,   Present   Participle,   and 
Gerundive,  add  nominal  (noun  or  adjective)  suffixes  to  the  present 
stem:  as,  vocare,  vocans  (antis),  vocandus. 

e.  The  Perfect  infinitive   adds   an   infinitive    (esse)   already 
formed  to  the  perfect  stem :  as,  vocavisse  (=  vocavi-esse). 

/.  The  Perfect  and  Future  Participles  and  the  Supine  are 
formed  upon  what  is  called  a  supine  stem,  which  adds  t-  either  to 
the  Present  stem  or  to  the  Root:  as,  vocat-,  tect-  (root  teg-). 

NOTE.  —  Strictly,  these  have  no  common  stem,  but  are  formed 
with  special  suffixes  (to-,  turo-,  tu-).  As,  however,  the  form  to 
which  they  are  added  is  the  same  for  each,  and  as  the  suffixes  all 
begin  with  t,  it  is  convenient  to  give  the  name  supine  stem  to  the  form 
in  t.  .  The  participle  in  to-  corresponds  to  the  Greek  verbal  -TOS  ;  that 
in  turo-  is  a  development  of  the  noun  of  agency  ending  in  -tor  (as 
victor,  victurus) ;  that  in  tu-  is  an  abstract  noun  of  the  fourth 
declension  (§  12,  4,  a). 

g.  The  Present  Infinitive  Passive  is  an  anomalous  form,  made 
by  adding  -ri  or  i  to  the  present  stem:  as,  voco,  vocari;  tego, 
tegi.  (When  i  is  added,  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  disappears.) 
It  was  anciently  followed  by  -er. 

h.  The  Future  Infinitive  Passive  is  supplied  by  the  supine  in 
turn  with  the  infinitive  passive  of  eo,  to  go,  used  impersonally :  as, 
vocatum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  called. 

NOTE.  —  The  construction  of  this  infinitive  is  different  from  the 
others,  the  form  in  turn  being  invariable,  and  the  apparent  subject 
accusative  being  really  the  object  of  the  supine  taken  actively.  Few 
verbs  in  fact  have  this  form,  for  which  fore  ut  with  the  subjunctive 
is  often  found. 

3.  Verb-Endings.  The  scheme  of  Verb-Endings,  as 
they  are  formed  by  suffixes  or  personal  endings,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


56 


VERB-FORMS. 


[28: 


a.    Verbal  Forms. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE   VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

INDICATIVE.      SUBJUNCTIVE.  INDICATIVE. 

[o]  m  (vowel-change)     [or] 

s  s  ris  or  re 

t  t  tur 

HTUS  nrus  niur 

tis  tis  mini 

nt  nt  ntur 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
r  (vowel-change) 
ris  or  re 
tur 
mur 
mini 
ntur 


IMPERFECT. 

bam  rem  bar  rer 

bas  res  baris(re)  reris(re) 

bat  ret  batur  retur 

bamus  remns  bamur  remur 

batis  retis  bamini  remini 

bant  rent  bantur  rentur 

FUTURE. 
bo,  or  am  (vowel-change)         bor,    or    or  (vowel-change) 


bis         es                                      beris(re)  eris(re) 
bit         et                                      bitur         etur 
bimus  emus                                  bimtir       emur 
bitis      etis                                   bimini      <?mini 
bunt     ent                                   buntur     cntur 

PERFECT. 

i 

erim 

rsum 

sim 

isti 

^  .                     tus  (ta 
eris 

-)es 

sis 

it 

erit 

(est 

sit 

imus 
istis 
erunt 
or  ere 

erimus 
erltis               bfae' 
Srint                    ta) 

PLUPERFECT. 

c  sumus 
<estis 
(sunt 

simus 
sitis 
sint 

.r  Sram 

issem 

reram 

essem 

eras 

isses 

-<eras 

esses 

6rat 

isset 

(erat 

esset 

eramus 

issemus 

f  eramus 

essemus 

eratis 
erant 

issetis                     ^6' 
issent                  ta> 

•<  eratis 
(erant 

essetis 
essent 

29: 


ESSE   AND    ITS    COMPOUNDS. 

FUT.  PERFECT. 


57 


Sro 

eris 

erit 

erimus 

eritis 

erint 


tum> 


erit 


ta)     ( 
IMPERATIVE. 


to 

te,  tote 

nto 


<  erunt 

re 
tor 
mini 
ntor 


b*    Nominal  Forms. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT.        re  (Pres.  stem)  ri  or  i  (old  rier,  ier) 

PERFECT.        sse  (Perf.  stem)  tus  (a,  um)  esse 

FUTURE.         turus  (a,  um)  esse      turn  irL 


PARTICIPLE. 


PRESENT.  ns,  ntis 

PERFECT.  

FUTURE.  turus,  a,  um 

SUPINE.  turn,  tu 


tus,  a,  um 

GERUNDIVE,  ndus,  a,  um 


NOTE.  — The  origin  and  meaning  of  some  of  the  above  verb-end- 
ings may  be  given  as  follows.  The  suffix  bam  is  an  imperfect  of 
BHU,  which  appears  in  fui,  futurus,  fio,  the  Greek  <|>va>,  and  English 
be;  —  rem  (for  sem)  is  an  optative  or  subjunctive  imperfect  of  ES, 
which  appears  in  sum,  cl|it,  am,  &c. ;  —  bo  is  a  future,  and  vi  a 
perfect,  of  BHU;  —  si  is  a  perfect  of  ES,  and  is  kindred  with  the 
aorist-ending  <ra,  though  not  of  the  same  formation;  —  erim  is  an 
optative  form  of  ES  corresponding  to  sim  ;  —  ero  is  the  future  of  es 
(for  es-io). 

29.  Esse  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS. 

The  verb  esse,  to  be,  is  both  irregular  and  defective,  having 
no  gerund  or  supine,  and  no  participle  but  the  future. 

NOTE.  —  The  present  participle,  which  should  be  sens  (compare 
Sanskrit  sant),  appears  in  that  form  in  ab-sens,  prse-sens ;  and  as 
ens  (compare  wv)  in  pot-ens.  The  simple  form  ens  is  sometimes 
found  in  late  or  philosophical  Latin  as  a  participle  or  abstract  noun, 
in  the  forms  ens,  Being ;  entia,  things  which  are. 

3* 


58 


ESSE   AND    ITS    COMPOUNDS. 


[29:    I. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS  :   Present,  sum,  1  am. 
Infinitive,  esse,  to  be. 
Perfect,  fui,  /  was  or  have  been. 
Future  Participle,  futurus,  about  to  be. 


PRESENT. 


INDICATIVE. 

SING.   1.  sum,  Jam. 

2.  es,  thou  art. 

3.  est,  Tie  (she,  it)  is. 

PLUR.  1.  sumus,  we  are. 

2.  estis,  you  are. 

3.  sunt,  they  are. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

sim,  /  am,  may  be,  &c.  (see 
sis  [examples  on  p.  51). 

sit 

simus 

sitis 

sint 


SING.  1.  eram,  I  was. 

2.  eras,  thou  wast. 

3.  erat,  he  was. 

PLUR.  1.  eramus,  we  were. 

2.  eratis,  you  were. 

3.  erant,  they  were. 


IMPERFECT. 

essem,  was  (would  or  fSrem 
esses,  might  be,  fyc.).     fores 
esset k  foret 


essemus 

essetis 

esseut 


f5rent 


FUTURE. 


SING.  1.  ero,  I  shall  be. 

2.  eris,  thou  wilt  be. 

3.  erit,  he  will  be. 

PLUR.  1.  erimus,  we  shall  be. 

2.  eritis,  you  will  be. 

3.  erunt,  they  will  be. 


PERFECT. 

SING.  1.  fui,  I  was  (have  been).      fu6rim,  was  (have  been,  may 

fueris  [have  been) . 

fuerit 


2.  fuisti,  thou  ivast. 

3.  fuit,  he  was. 


PLUR.  1.  fulmus,  we  were.  fuerimus 

2.  fuistis,  you  were.  fueritis 

3.  fuerunt,  they  were.  fuerint 

or  fuere. 


29:   I.]  ES8E   AND   ITS    COMPOUNDS.  59 

PLUPERFECT. 
SING.  1.  fueram,  /  "had  been.          fuissem,   had  been   (might  or 

2.  fueras,  thou  hadst  been,    fuisses         [would  have  been) . 

3.  fuerat,  he  had  been.          fuisset 
PLUR.  1.  fueramus,  we  had  been,    fuissemus 

2.  fueratis,  you  had  been,     fuissetis 

3.  fuerant,  they  had  been,    fuissent 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
SING.  1.  fuero,  I  shall  have  been. 

2.  fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been. 

3.  fuerit,  he  will  have  been. 
PLUR.  1.  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been. 

2.  fueritis,  you  will  have  been. 

3.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT,    gs,  be  thou.  este,  be  ye. 

FUTURE,     esto,  thou  shall  be.          estote,  ye  shall  be. 
esto,  he  shall  be.  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

INFINITIVE. 
PEESENT.    esse,  to  be. 
PERFECT,    fuisse,  to  have  been. 
FUTURE,     fbre  or  futurus  esse,  to  be  about  to  be. 
FUTURE  PARTICIPLE,     futurus,  a,  um,  about  to  be. 

RARE  FORMS.    Fut.  Indie,  escit,  escunt  (strictly  inchoative  pres., 
§  39).     Pres.  Subj.  siem,  fuam. 

NOTE.  —  The  root  of  the  verb  esse  is  .es-,  which  in  the  imperfect 
is  changed  to  er-  (§1,  3,  e),  and  in  many  cases  is  shortened  to  s-. 
Some  of  its  modifications,  as  found  in  several  languages  more  or  less 
distantly  related  to  Latin,  may  be  seen  in  the  following  Table ;  —  the 
"  Indo-European  "  being  the  primitive  or  theoretic  form,  and  the  form 
sydm  corresponding  to  the  Latin  siem,  sim :  — 
Ind.-Eur. 
as-mi 
as-si 
as-ti 
as-masi 
as-tasi 
as-auti 

The  Perfect  and  Supine  stems,  fui,  futu-,  are  kindred  with  the  Greek 
v,  was),  and  with  the  English  be. 


Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Slavonic. 

Lithuanian. 

as-mi 

sydm  (opt.) 

?|JL|ltt 

yes-mi 

es-mi 

as-i 

syds 

&r<Kt 

yes-si 

es-i 

as-ti 

sydt 

4<rr£ 

yes-ti 

es-ti 

s-mas 

sydma 

€OPU.€V 

yes-mu 

es-me 

s-tha 

sydta 

€<TT€' 

yes-te 

es-te 

s-anti 

syus 

€VTlt 

s-unti 

es-ti 

t  Old  Form. 

60 


CONJUGATION. 


[29,  30. 


a.  The  verb  esse  is  compounded,  without  any  change  of  its 
inflection,  with  many  prepositions.     In  the  compound  prodesse, 
to  profit,  pro  retains  its  original  d  where   followed   by  e:   as, 
prosum,  prodes,  prodest,  prosumus,  prodestis,  prosunt. 

b.  Esse  is  also  compounded  with  the  adjective  potis  or  pote, 
able,  in  the  verb  posse.     Its  inflection,  with  that  of  prodesse,  is 
given  in  the  following :  -j— 

PRESENT. 

INDIC.  SUBJ.  INDIC.  SUBJ. 

possum,  /  can.         possim  prosum  prosim 

potes,  thou  canst,      possis  prodes  prosis 

potest,  he  can.          possit  prodest  prosit 

possumus,  we  can.  possimus  prosumus  prosimus 

potestis,  you  can.     possitis  prodestis  prositis 

possunt,  they  can.     possint  prosunt  prosint 

IMPERFECT. 
poteram  possem  proderam          prodessem 

FUTURE. 
potero  prodero 

PERFECT. 
potui  potuerim  profui  profuerim 

PLUPERFECT. 
potueram  potuissem          profueram        profuissem 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

potuero  profuero 

IMPERATIVE. 

prodes,  prodesto,  &c. 
INFINITIVE. 
PR.  posse      PERF.  potuisse      PR.  prodesse    PERF.  profuisse 

PARTICIPLES. 
[potens,  powerful.']  profuturus,  about  to  help. 

30.  CONJUGATION. 

There  are  in  Latin  four  principal  forms  of  Present 
Stems,  ending  respectively  in  a,  e,  e,  I.  With  this  dif- 
ference of  stem  most  of  the  other  differences  of  conju- 
gation coincide. 

Yerbs  are  accordingly  classed  in  four  regular 
conjugations,  distinguished  by  the  vowel  before  re  in 
the  Present  Infinitive  Active,  which  is  the  same  in 
each  case  as  those  given  above. 


30:    I,  2.]  CONJUGATION.  61 

NOTE.  —  This  mode  of  classification  was  invented  by  the  Roman 
grammarians,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  by  the  moderns.  In 
fact,  however,  the  vowels  a,  e,  i  (long),  found  in  the  First,  Second, 
and  Fourth  Conjugations,  are  different  corruptions  of  the  form  AYA, 
which  in  the  original  language  was  added  to  roots  in  one  form  of 
present  stems.  All  other  forms  of  present  stems,  except  a  few 
unmodified,  had  originally,  or  received  in  Latin,  a  suffix  ending 
in  (or  consisting  of)  a  short,  which  was  corrupted  to  e  or  i  short. 
These  are  collected  in  the  Third  Conjugation.  A  few  roots  ending 
in  a  vowel  were  drawn  —  perhaps  by  vowel-increase  —  into  the  analogy 
of  the  other  conjugations;  and  a  lew  of  the  fourth  conjugation  had 
IYA  instead  of  AYA. 

1.  First  Conjugation*  Most  verbs  of  the  first  conju- 
gation retain  the  stem- vowel  (a)  throughout,  except  in  the 
present  indicative,  which  loses  it  before  0,  and  the  present  sub- 
junctive, where  it  is  changed  to  e. 

NOTE.  —  Dare,  to  give  —  stem  originally  da  —  retains  a  short,  ex- 
cept in  da  and  das.  The  Subjunctive  with  changed  vowel  (e)  corre- 
sponds to  the  Greek  and  Sanskrit  Optative,  and  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  a  tense  of  i,  to  go,  a-f-i  becoming  e. 

a.  In  the  Future,  the  ending  -bo,  &c.,  is  added  to  the  present 
stem :  as,  vocabo. 

b.  The   Perfect   stem   adds  vi  to   that   of  the  present:    as, 
vocavi.    But 

1.  A  few  verbs,  either  always  or  occasionally,  add  vi  not  to  the 
present  stem,  but  to  the  root,  v  becoming  u:  as,  sono,  sonui 
(see.  p.  67). 

2.  Two  verbs,  do,  sto,  form  their  perfect  stem  by  reduplication  : 
dedi,  steti. 

c.  The  Supine  stem  adds  t  to  the  present  stem ;  but  verbs  that 
add  vi  to  the  root  add  t  in  like  manner,  sometimes  with  a  connect- 
ing vowel:  as,  seco,  sectus;  domo,  domitus. 

2.  Second  Conjugation.  Only  a  few  verbs  of  the  sec- 
ond conjugation  retain  e  throughout. 

a.  The  Present  Indicative  has  e  before  o  in  the  first  person ; 
in  the  Present  Subjunctive  a  (originally  a)  is  inserted  after  e :  as, 
deleo,  deleam. 

NOTE.  —  The  a  in  the  present  subjunctive  is  borrowed  from  the 
third  conjugation.  (See  next  head,  3,  e,  N.) 

b.  The  Future  (as  in  the  first  conjugation)  adds  -bo,  &c.,  to 
the  present  stem :  as,  delebo. 

c.  In  a  few  verbs,  the  Perfect  stem  adds  vi  to  the  present,  as 
deleo,  delevi;  but   in   most   this   termination  is   added   to   the 
root,  as  moneo,  moiiui  (see  p.  69). 


62  CONJUGATION.  [30:  3. 

d.  In  a  few,  the  root  is  reduplicated,  and  in  several  -si  is 
added  to  the   root,    or  its  vowel  is  strengthened:    as,  tondeo, 
totondi  ;   maneo,  mansi  ;  lugeo,  luxi  ;  caveo,  cavi. 

e.  For  the  Supine  stem,  those  which  add  -vi  to  the  stem  add  t 
also  to  the  stem  ;  those  which  add  vi  to  the  root  add  t  to  the  root, 
with  the  connecting-vowel  i  ;  those  which  form  the  perfect  other- 
wise add  t  (or  its  weakened  form  s)  to  the  root:  as,  deletus, 
niomtus,  toiisus,  mansus,  cautus. 

3.  Third  Conjugation.  To  the  third  conjugation  be- 
long those  verbs  which  form  the  present  stem  in  any  other 
way  than  by  adding  a  long  vowel  to  the  root. 

a.  The  Present  Stem  is  formed  in  eight  different  ways,  in  all 
of  which  e  (original  a),  or  else  a  suffix  containing  it,  is  added  to 
the  Root.  Besides  this  addition,  — 

1.   The  vowel  of  the  root  is-  lengthened  (vowel-increase)  :  as  in 
duco,  fido,  nubo  (compare  ducis,  perfidus,  proniiba  ;  also  Gr. 
root  Anr-). 


2.  The  root  is  reduplicated:  as  in  sisto,  bibo,  gigno,  from  the 
root  sta-  (in  status)  ,  pa-  (in  pbtus)  ,  gen-  (in  genus  ;  compare 
yiyvofiaLj  root  ytv-}. 

3.  The  root  is  strengthened  by  the  insertion  of  n  (m)  before  its 
final   consonant  :    as  in  findo,  frango,  cunibo    (compare  think, 
thought;  fiavdavcj,  root  fiad-). 

4.  Final  1  or  r  of  the  root  is  doubled  by  assimilation  of  an 
added  consonant  :  as  in  fello,  pello  (compare  ffreAAw,  root  cre/l-), 
verro. 

5.  The  consonant  n  is  added  to  the  root  :  as  in  cerno,  lino, 
temiio  (compare  T£//VO>,  root  rep). 

6.  The  root  adds  sc  or  isc  (originally  and  often  still  incep- 
tive) :   as  in  disco  (=  dicsco,  root  die),  nascor  (root  gna)  , 
nanciscor  (root  nac,  compare  ^aa/cu,  evpianu). 

7.  The  root  adds  t:   as  in  pecto,  plecto,  mitto  (compare 
KOTTTCJ). 

8.  The  root  adds  i   (originally  y)   in  the  following:    capio, 
cupio,  -cutio,  facio,  f6dio,  fugio,  jacio,  -licio,  pario,  quatio 
(-ciitio),  rapio,  sapio,  -spicio. 

NOTE.  —  Verbal  stems  in  u  add  merely  the  vowel  e,  and  are  of 
the  third  conjugation.  The  u  may  be  radical,  as  in  suo,  pluo,  fluo  ; 
or  developed  from  a  palatal,  as  in  loquor,  stinguo  (cf.  CTI&)  ;  or 
may  belong  to  the  noun  in  denominatives,  as  statuo  (statu-s),  acuo 
(acu-s).  Stems  in  o  are  lost,  as  po-  (cf.  potum)  ;  or  have  become 
of  the  first  conjugation,  as  boo,  boare. 


30:  3-]  CONJUGATION.  63 

6.  The  stem-vowel  e  is  weakened  to  i  in  several  forms  of  the 
Present  indicative  and  imperative  ;  is  lengthened  to  e  in  the  Imper- 
fect ;  and  undergoes  other  changes  exhibited  in  the  paradigm. 

c.  The  Future  is  formed  (without  the  suffix  bo)  by  vowel- 
changes  to  a  and  e  before  the  personal  endings. 

NOTE.  —  The  a  (properly  long)  of  the  future  is  borrowed  from 
the  present  subjunctive  ;  the  forms  in  e  have  the  same  origin  as  the 
present  subjunctive  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  are  properly  optative. 

d.  The  Perfect  stem  is  formed  in  five  different  ways  :  — 

1.  The   root  is   reduplicated :    as   in    cado,    cecidi ;    curro, 
ciicurri;  disco,  didici. 

2.  The  root-vowel  is  increased,  a  becoming  e,  and  i,  o,  u  being 
simply  lengthened :   as  in  capio,  cepi ;  fodio,  fodi ;  fiigio,  fugi. 

3.  The  same  form  appears  in  the  perfect  as  in  the  present  stem  : 
this  is  regular  with  verbs  of  this  conjugation  in  uo  (vo) :  as,  acuo, 
acui ;   solvo,  solvi. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  probable  that  in  the  last  two  cases  the  root  was 
originally  reduplicated  ;  but  that  the  reduplication  was  retained  only 
where  vowel-increase  did  not  take  place. 

4.  The  suffix  si '  is  added  to  the  root :  as  in  carpo,  carpsi ; 
gero,  gessi;   sumo,  sumpsi;   dlco,  dixi;  tego,  texi. 

5.  The  suffix  ui  (vi)  is  added  to  the  root :  as  in  colo,  colui ; 
fremo,  fremui ;   gigno,  genui ;   rapio,  rapui.     Before  this  suffix 
a  long  vowel  of  various  origin  is  often  found :   as  in  cupio,  cupi- 
vi ;  peto,  petivi ;  sperno,"  sprevi. 

NOTE. — Both  suffixes  are  combined  in  the  following:  necto, 
nexui  ;  plecto,  plexui.  A  few  verbs  vary  :  as,  pango,  panxi  (pegi 
Or  pepigi) ;  vello,  velli  or  vulsi. 

e.  The  Present  Subjunctive  changes  e  to  a:  as,  vehere,  vehas. 
NOTE.  —  Thisjform  with  a  corresponds  to  the  Greek  and  Sanskrit 

subjunctive  withy  Ipng  vowel,  and  proceeds  from  the  addition  of 
another  a  (short) :  Compare  t\r\s,  vahasi. 

f.  The  Supine  stem  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  root  t-,  which 
in  many  cases  takes  eup^ionically  the  form  s-  (§  1,  3,  f.  4). 

NOTE.  —  A  few  roots  take  a  connecting  vowel  before  this  affix, 
and  some  have  both  forms.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  future  parti- 
ciple and  derivative  verb  take  the  longer  form  :  as,  ortus,  01  Hums  ; 
actus  (ago),  agito. 

gr.  Some  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  form  the  other  parts 
upon  the  (modified)  present  stem  as  a  root :  as,  fingo,  finxi,  fict- 
(fig) ;  jungo,  junxi,  junct-  (jiig). 

h.  In  verbs  which  add  i  to  the  root  in  the  present  stem,  this 
vowel  is  lost  where  it  would  be  followed  by  e  or  i  (except  in  the 
future  third  person  singular) :  as  in  capit,  caperet,  capiet. 


64  CONJUGATION.  [30:  4,  5. 

4.  Fourth  Conjugation.     Verbs  of  the  fourth  conju- 
gation retain  I  throughout,  except  before  another  vowel. 

a»  Several  forms  of  the  present  stem  have  in  addition  the  final 
vowels  of  the  third  conjugation.  In  the  Imperfect  the  regular 
form  (retained  in  ibani,  from  eo)  is  often  found  in  early  Latin. 

•  6.  The  Future  does  not  take  bo,  but  has  ia  and  ie  (from  the 
third  conjugation)  before  the  personal  endings.  In  early  Latin  the 
form  in  bo  (retained  in  ibo)  sometimes  occurs. 

€•  The  Perfect  stem  adds  vi  to  the  present  stem :  as,  finio, 
finivi.  A  few  verbs  add  it  to  the  root,  as  aperio,  aperui; 
several  add  si,  as  sentio,  sensi ;  and  in  a  few  the  perfect  is  the 
same  as  the  present  stem,  with  or  without  vowel-increase :  as, 
reperio,  reperi;  venio,  veni. 

d*  The  Supine  stem  adds  t-  to  the  present :  as,  finio,  finitus. 
A  few  add  it  to  the  root :  as,  salio,  saltus ;  sepelio,  sepultus. 

5.  Principal  farts.     The  principal  parts  of  a  verb, 
which  determine  its  conjugation  throughout,  are  the  follow- 
ing :   1.  Present  Indicative   (showing  the  present  stem)  ;    2. 
Present  Infinitive  (the  conjugation)  ;  3.  Perfect  (the  perfect 
stem)  ;    4.  Supine  (the  supine  stem). 

a*  The  regular  forms  of  conjugation  are  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing:— 

1.  voco,  vocare,  vocavi,  vocatum,  call. 

2.  deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  destroy. 

3.  carpo,  carpere,  carpsi,  carptum,  gather. 

4.  audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum,  hear. 

In  the  second  conjugation,  however,  the  characteristic  e  rarely 
appears  in  the  perfect  and  supine :  thus  the  type  of  this  conjuga- 
tion is  — 

moneo,  monere,  monui,  momtum,  warn. 

6.  What  is  called  the  Synopsis  of  a  verb  consists  of  the  first 
person  singular  of  each  tense,  with  infinitive  and  participles,  given 
in  regular  order:  as,  of  amo,  I  love  — 

INDIC.  amo,  amabam,  amabo,  amavi,  amaveram,  amavero. 

SUBJ.    amem,  aniarem,  amaverim,  amavissem. 

IMP.      ama,  amato. 

INF.      amare,  amavisse. 

PART,   amans,  amaturus,  amatus,  amandus. 

Notice  that  in  all  verbs  the  Imperf.  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive 
may  be  formed  by  adding  the  personal-endings  to  it-he  present  and 
perfect  infinitive;  and  the  Imperative  Passive  (second  person)  is 
the  same  in  form  with  the  present  infinitive  active. 


30 :  6,  7-]  CONJUGATION.  65 

v 

€•  In  many  verbs  the  principal  parts  take  the  form  of  two  or 
more  different  conjugations :  as, 

1,  2.   domo,  domare,  domui,  domitum,  subdue. 

2,  3.   augeo,  augere,  auxi,  auctum,  increase. 

3,  4.  peto,  petere,  petlvi,  petitum,  seek. 

4,  3,   vincio,  vincire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  bind. 

In  these  the  conjugation  is  said  to  be  denoted  by  the  first  or 
present  stem. 

a*  The  compounds  of  many  verbs  vary  from  the  forms  of  the 
primitive.  This  variation  is  seen  especially  (1)  in  the  change  of 
the  vowel  of  the  root,  a  in  open  syllables  becoming  i  and  in  close 
syllables  e,  while  e  becomes  i:  as,  capio,  captum,  concipio, 
conceptum ;  teneo,  contineo ;  (2)  in  the  loss  of  the  reduplica- 
tion :  as,  concido,  concidi.  (This  is,  however,  retained  in  com- 
pounds of  disco,  do,  posco,  sto,  and  in  some  of  those  of  curro). 

6.  Special  Forms.  The  following  special  forms  are 
found  in  the  conjugation  of  many  verbs :  — 

a»  In  tenses  formed  upon  the  Perfect  stem,  v  between  two 
vowels  is  often  suppressed,  and  the  second  vowel  merged  in  the  first 
(unless  a  or  e  follows  i  or  u) :  as,  amasse  =  amavisse ;  flestis  = 
flevistis ;  audieram  =  audiveram ;  uosse  =  novisse ;  noram  = 
noveram.  This  is  especially  frequent  in  verbs  of  the  fourth  conju- 
gation, and  is  regular  in  the  compounds  of  eo :  as,  abiit  for  abivit. 

6.  In  many  forms  s  with  its  vowel  is  suppressed  in  like  manner 
when  it  would  be  repeated :  as,  dixti  for  dixisti. 

c*  Four  verbs  —  dico,  duco,  facio,  fero  —  with  several  of  their 
compounds,  drop  the  vowel-termination  of  the  Imperative,  making 
die,  due,  fac,  fer  (but  effice,  confice).  The  forms  dice,  duce, 
face  (never  fere)  occur  in  early  Latin. 

d»  For  the  imperative  of  scio,  the  future  form  scito  is  always 
used  in  the  singular,  and  scitote  usually  in  the  plural. 

e*  The  following  are  ancient  forms,  rarely  found  except  in 
poetry :  — 

1.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  -ibam,  -ibo  for  -iebam,  -iam  (fut.) ; 

2.  In  the  present  subjunctive  -im:  as  in  duim,  perduim  (re- 
tained also  in  religious  formulas) ; 

3.  In  the  perf.  subj.  and  fut.  perf.  -so,  -sim:  as,  faxo,  faxim; 

4.  In  the  passive  infinitive  -ier:  as,  vocarier  for  vocari. 

"7.  Parallel  Forms.  Many  verbs  have  more  than  one 
set  of  forms,  of  which  only  one  is  generally  found  in  classic 
use :  as, 

lavo,  lavare  or  lavere,  to  wasli. 

scateo,  scatere  or  scatere,  to  gush. 

ludifico,  are  or  ludificor,  ari,  to  mock. 


66 


FIRST    CONJUGATION. 


31.     FIRST 
ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  /  love  or  am  loving. 
amo,  /  love.  amem 

amas,  thou  lovest.    ames 
am  at,  he  loves.        amet 
amamus,  we  love,  amemus 
amatis,  you  love,     ametis 
amant,  they  love. 


CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I  am  beloved. 


[31. 


amor 

amaris  (re) 

amatur 

amamur 

amammi 

amantur 


ament 

Imperfect,  /  loved  (used  to  love). 
amabam,  /  loved,  amarem         amabar 
amabas  amares 

amabat  amaret 

amabamus  amaremus 

amabatis  amaretis 

amabant  amarent 

Future,  /  shall  love. 
amabo,  /  shall  love. 
amabis 
amabit 
amabimus 
amabitis 
amabunt 

Perfect,  /  loved  (have  loved). 
amavi,  I  loved,     amaverim 
amaveris 
amaverit 
amaverimus 
amaveritis 


amer 

ameris  (re) 

ametur 

amemur 

amemini 

amentur 

I  was  loved. 
amarer 
amareris  (re) 
amaretur 


amabaris  (re) 

amabatur 

amabamur          amaremur 

amabamini         amaremini 

amabantur         amarentur 

/  shall  be  loved. 
amabor 
amaberis  (re) 
amabitur 
amabimur 
amabimmi 
amabuntur 

/  was  (have  been )  loved. 


amatus  sum 
amatus  es 
amatus  est 
amati  sumus 
amati  estis 
amati  sunt 


amatus  sim 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 
amati  simus 
amati  sitis 
amati  sint 


7  had  been  loved. 

amatus  eram      amatus  essem 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


amavisti 

amavit 

amavimus 

amavistis 

amaverunt  (ere)    amaverint 

Pluperfect,  /  had  loved. 
amaveram,  /  had  amavissem 
amaveras  [loved,  amavisses 
amaverat  amavisset 

amaveramus         amavissemus  amati  eramus 
amaveratis  amavissetis     amati  eratis 

amaverant  amavissent     amati  erant 

Future  Perfect,  /  shall  have  loved.        I  shall  have  been  loved. 
amavero,  /  shall  have  loved.        amatus  ero    ^ 
amaveris 
amaverit 
amaverimus 
amaveritis 
amaverint 


amatus  esses 
amatus  esset 
amati  essemus 
amati  essetis 
amati  essent 


amatus  eris 
amatus  erit 
amati  erimus 
amati  eritis 
amati  erunt 


31:    I,  2.]  FIRST    CONJUGATION.  67 

ACTIVE.  IMPERATIVE.  PASSIVE. 

PR.       ama,  love.  thou(  amare,  be  thou  loved. 

amate,  love  ye.  amamini,  be  ye  loved. 

FUT.    amato,  Tie  shall  love.  amator,  he  shall  be  loved. 

amatote,  ye  shall  love. 

amanto,  they  shall  love.        amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 

Noun  and  Adjective  Forms. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRES.      amare/.  to  love.  amari,  tobe  loved. 

PERP.      amavisse,  to  have  loved.  amatus^sse,  to  have  been  loved. 

FUT.       amaturus  esse,  to  be  amatum  iri,  amatus  fore. 
about  to  love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRES.     amans,  loving. 

pERF.      amatus,  beloved. 

FUT.       amaturus,  about  to  love.     

GERUNDIVE,     amandus,  a,  um,  to  be  loved-^lovely). 
GERUND.          amandum,  -di,  -do,  loving. 
SUPINES.  amatum,  amatu,  to  love. 

1.  There  are  about  360  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation, 
most  of  them  formed  directly  upon  a  noun  or  adjective-stem, 
to  which  they  generally  give  the  force  and  meaning  of  an 
active    verb:   as,    armo,    to   arm    (anna)  ;    caeco,   to  blind 
(caecus)  ;  exsulo,  to  be  in  exile  (exsul).    Their  conjugation  is 
usually  regular,  like  amo ;  though  of  many  only  a  few  parts 
are  found  in  use. 

2.  Those  which   form  their   Perfect   and   Supine  stems 
differently  are  the  following,  —  those  marked  f  having  also 
regular  forms ;    and  those  preceded  by  a  hyphen  being  found 
only  in  compounds  :  — 

crepo,  crepui,  crepit-,  resound,  plico,  plicui,  -p\\c\t-,fold. 

cubo,  cubui,  cubit::,  lie  down.  poto,  potavi,  fpot-,  drink. 

do,  dare,  de.di,  daf^,  give.  seco,  secui,  sect-,  cut. 

domo,  domui,  domit-,  subdue,  sono,  sonui,  sonit-,  sound. 

frico,  fricui,  f  frict-,  rub.  sto,  steti,  stat-,  stand. 

juyo,  juvi,  jut-,  kelp.  tono,  tonui,  tonit-,  thunder. 

mico,  micui,  glitter.  veto,  vetui,  vztit-,  forbid. 
neco,  f  necui,  f  nect-,  kill.  t 


SECOND    CONJUGATION. 


[32. 


32.     SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  I  warn. 
moneo,  /  warn,     moneam 
mones,  you  warn,  moneas 
monet,  he  warns,   moneat 
monemus  moneamus 

monetis  moneatis 

monent  moneant 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

/  am  warned. 

moneor  monear 

moneris  (re)         monearis  (re) 
monetur  moneatur 


monemur 
monemmi 
monentur 


moneamur 
moneammi 
moneantur 
Imperfect,  /  warned  (was  warning).  I  was  warned. 

monebam  monerem         monebar  monerer 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 

Future,  /  shall  warn. 
monebo 
monebis 
monebit 
monebimus 


moneres 

moneret 

moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 


monebaris  (re)    monereris  (re) 
monebatur          moneretur 
monebamur        moneremur 
monebamini       moneremini 
monebaiitur       monerentur 

/  shall  be  warned. 
monebor 
moneberis  (re) 
monebitur 
monebimur 

monebitis  monebimmi 

monebunt  monebuntur 

Perfect,  /  warned  (have  warned).       I  was  (have 

monui  monuerim 

monuisti  monueris 

monuit  monuerit 

monuimus  monuerimus 

monuistis  monueritis 

monuerunt  (re)  monuerint 

Pluperfect,  /  had  warned. 
monuissem 
nionuisses 
monuisset 


T          earned. 
^unitus  sim 
monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 
moniti  simus 
moniti  sitis 
moniti  sint 


monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 

monuissemus  moniti  eramus 
monuissetis     moniti  eratis 
monuissent     moniti  erant 


monih1-'     am 

mcv          es  ' 

monitus  est 

moniti  sumus 

moniti  estis 

moniti  sunt 

I  had  been  warned. 

monitus  eram     monitus  essem 
monitus  esses 
monitus  esset 
moniti  essemus 
moniti  essetis 


monue'ram 
monueras 
monuerat 
monueramus 
"  lueratis 

,  ^ ;ant  monuissent     moniti  erant       moniti  esseiit 

Fut.  i^erfect,  /  shall  have  warned.        I  shall  have  been  warned. 

monuero  monitus  ero 

monueris  monitus  eris 

monuerit  monitus  erit 

monuerimus  moniti  erimus 

monueritis  moniti  eritis 

monuerint  moniti  erunt 


32:   1,2.]  SECOND    CONJUGATION.  69 

ACTIVE.                   IMPERATIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.                        Plur.                    Sing.  Plur. 

PR.  mone,  warn,  monete             monere  monemini 

F.     moneto          monetote         

mone  to          monento          monetor  monentor 

INFINITIVE. 

PR.  monere          PF.  monuisse  PR.  moneri       PF.  monitus  esse 
F.     mqniturus  esse  F.    monitum  iri  (monitus  fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

monens  moniturus       monitus  monendus 

GER.  monendum,  di,  &c.  SUP.  monitum    monitu 

% 

1.  There  are  nearly  120  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation, 
most  of  them  denominative  verbs  of  condition,  having  a  cor- 
responding noun  and  adjective  from  the  same   root,  and  an 
inceptive  form  in  -sco :   as,  caleo,  calor,  calldus,  calesco ; 
timeo,  timor,  timldus. 

2.  Most  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  form  their  per- 
fect and  supine  like  IfcOneo,     The  following  have  evi  and 
etum :    deleo,    destroy ;'  fleo,   weep ;    neo,    spin ;    and  com- 
pounds of  -"nleo,  Jill.     The  renuy-   .er  are  — 

• 

algeo,  alsi.  *       ^>d  moveo,  movi,  mot-,  move. 

ardeo,  arsi,  ar's-,  burn.  mulcto,  imilsi,  muls-.  soothe. 

audeo,  ausus  sum,  dart.      .  ''•'       mulgeo,  si  (xi),  muls-  (mulct-), 

o,  auxi,  auct-,  increase.  milk. 

.  cavi,  caut-,  care.  niveo,  nivi  (nixi),  iviuk. 

•'.  c*ens-,  value^       paveo,  pavi.  fear. 
cico,  civi,  cit-,  excite.  pendeo,  pependi,  hang. 

doceo,  docui,  doct-,  teach.      .       prandeo,  prandi,  prans-,  dine. 

o,  favi,  faut-,  favor.  rideo,  risi,  ris-,  laugh. 

ferveo,  fervi  (ferbui),  glow.          sedeo,  sedi,  sess-,  sit. 
foveo,  fovi,  fot-,  cherish.  soleo,  solitus    sum,  be  tvont. 

frigeo,  frixi,  be  cold.  sorbeo,  sorbui  (sorpsi),  suck. 

fulgeo,  fulsi,  shine.  spondeo,     spopondi,    spons-,   to 

gaudeo,  gavisus  sum,  rejoice.       strideo,  stridi,  w/iiz.        [flledp*. 
hsereo,  haesi,  haes-,  cling.  suadeo,  suasi,  suas-,  urge. 

indulgeo,  indulsi,  indult-,  /;/-  teneo,  tenui,  tent-,  hold 
jubeo,jussi,jus£-,  order,  \dulge.  tergeo,  tersi,  ters-,  ivi^  . 
langueo,  langui.  be  faint.  tondeo,  totondi,  tons-,  shear. 

liqueo,  liqui  ^licui),  melt.  torqueo,  torsi,  tort-,  twist. 

luceo,  luxi,  ihine.  torreo,  torrui,  tost-,  roast. 

lugeo,  luxi,  luct-,  mourn.  turgeo,  tursi,  swell. 

maneo,  mar/ si,  mans-,  wait-          urgeo,  ursi,  urge. 
misceo,  cui.  mixt-  (mist-),  mix.  video,  vidi,  vis-,  see. 
mordeo,  mt-mordi,  mors-,  bite,    voveo,  vovi,  vot-,  vow. 


70 


THIRD    CONJUGATION. 


[33. 


33.    T^HIRD  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  I  rule. 


rego,  I  rule.  regam 

regis,  thou  rulest.    regas 
regit,  he  rules.         regat 
regimus,  we  rule,    regamus 
regitis,  you  rule,     regatis 
regunt,  they  rule,    regant 

Imperfect,  I  ruled  (was  ruling). 
regebam,  /  ruled,   regerem 
regebas  regeres 

regebat  regeret 

regebamus        ^|g|Sj^nus 
regebatis          ^jdpS^eretis 
regebant  regerent, 

Future,  /  shall  rule. 
regarii,  /  shall  rule. 
regei 
reget 
regemus 
regetis 
regent 

Perfect,  'I  ruled  (have  ruled). 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I  am  ruled. 
regar 

regaris  (re) 
regatur 
regamur 
regammi 
regantur 


regor 

regeris  (re) 

regltur 

regimur 

regimini 

reguntur 

I  was  ruled. 

regebar  regerer 

regebaris  (re)       regereris  (re) 
regebatur 
regebamur 
regebamini 
regebantur 

/  shall  be  ruled. 


regeretur 
regeremur  ~ 
regeremini 
reerentur 


regeris  (re) 

regetur 

regemur 

regemini 

regentur 

I  was  (have  been)  ruled. 


rexi,  I  ruled. 

rexe'rim 

rectus  sum 

rectus  sim 

r  existi 

rexeris 

rectus  es 

rectus  sis 

rexit 

rexerit 

rectus  est 

rectus  sit 

r^;Lims 

rexerimus 

recti  sumus 

recti  simus 

rexistis 

rexeritis 

recti  estis 

recti  sitis 

rexerunt  (re) 

rexerint 

recti  sunt 

recti  sint 

Pluperfect,  /  had  ruled. 
rexeram,  /  had      rexissem 
rexeras     [ruled,     rexisses 
rexerat  rexisset 


rexeramus 

rexeratis 

rexeraiit 


rexissemus 

rexissetis 

rexissent 


/  had  been  ruled. 

rectus  eram          rectus  essem 
rectus  esses 
rectus  esset 
recti  essemus 
recti  essetis 
recti  essent 


Fut.  Perfect,  1  shall  have  ruled. 
rexero,  /  shall  have  ruled. 
rexeris 
rexerit 
rexerimus 
rexeritis 
rexerint 


rectus  eras 
rectus  erat 
recti  eramus 
recti  eratis 
recti  erant 

I  shall  havt^een  ruled. 
rectus  ero 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 
recti  erimus 
recti  eritis 
recti  erunt 


33.] 


THIRD    CONJUGATION. 


71 


Sing, 


ACTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Plur.  Sing. 


PR.  2.  rege,  rule,    reglte  regere 


PASSIVE. 

Plur. 
regimini 


F.    2.  regito 
3.  regito 


regitote 

regunto          regitor 

INFINITIVE. 

PF.  rexisse    PR.  regi 


reguntor 


PR.  regere  PF.  rexisse    PR.  regi  PF.  rectus  esse 

F.    recturus  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 

regens  recturus        rectus 

GER.  regendum,  di,  &c.  SUP.  rectum,  rectu 


F.    rectum  iri  (rectus  fore) 
l*egendus 


Verbs  in  io  (present  stem)  are  inflected  as  follows  :  — 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  1  take. 
capio,  /  take.         capiam 
capis,  thou  takest.  capias 
capit,  he  takes.        capiat 
capimus,  we  take,    capiamus 
capitis,  you  take,    capiatis 
capiunt,  they  take,  capiant 

Imperfect,  I  took  (was  taking). 

capiebam,  /  took,  caperem 

capiebas  caperes 

capiebat  caperet 

capiebamus  caperemus 

capiebatis  caperetis 

capiebant     »  caperent 

Future,  1  shall  take. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

/  am  taken. 


capior 
caperis  (re) 
capitur 
capimur 
capimmi 
capiuntur 

capiar 
capiaris  (re) 
capiatur 
capiamur 
capiamini 
capiantur 

capiebar 

capiebaris  (re) 

capiebatur 

capiebamur 

capiebarnini 

capiebantur 


was  taken. 

caperer 

capereris  (re) 

caperetur 

caperemur 

caperemmi 

caperentur 


/  shall  be  taken. 


capiam         capiemus 

capiar                 capiemur 

capies          capietis 

capieris  (re)     capiemini 

capiet          capient 

capietur            capientur 

PERF.    cepi            ceperim 

captus  sum         captus  sim 

PLUP.    ceperam    cepissem 

captus  sim           captus  essem 

F.  P.      cepero 

captus  ero 

^                                                             IMPERATIVE, 
capite                         capere        capimmi 
4    :o          capitote 

capito          capiuiito 

capitor       capiuntor 

INFIN.   capere        cepisse 

capi            captus  esse 

PAUT.    capiens      capturus 

captus        capiendus 

72  THIRD    CONJUGATION.  [33 :    I,  2,  3, 

1.  The  following  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation  form 
the  perfect  and  supine  stems  like  rego,  by  adding  s  and  t 
to  the  root.     Those  marked  }  take  s  in  the  supine: — 

ango,  choke ;  carpo,  pluck ;  cingo,  lind ;  J  claudo,  shut ; 
clepo,  steal;  coino,  comb:  c6quo,  cook;  demo,  take  away; 
dico,  say  :  duco,  guide ;  J  figo,  fix ;  J  flecto,  bend ;  frigo,  fry ; 
J  laedo,  hurt ;  lingo,  lick ;  {  ludo,  play ;  nubo,  marry ;  J  pecto, 
comb;  fplaudo,  applaud;  plecto,  twine;  promo,  bring  out; 
{rado,  scrape;  rSgo,  rule;  repo,  creep;  Jrodo,  gnaw;  sarpo, 
prune;  scalpo,  scrape;  scribo,  write;  serpo,  crawl;  sumo,  take; 
tego,  shelter ;  tingo,  stain ;  traho,  drag  ;  { trudo,  thrust ;  J  vado, 
go;  veho,  draw;  vivo,  live. 

NOTE.  —  In  these  verbs,  h  and  v  are  treated  as  palatals,  becom- 
ing x  and  ct ;  p  takes  the  place  of  b,  and  is  inserted  euphonically 
after  m,  before  s  and  t;  while  d  and  t  are  omitted:  as  in  scrips!, 
sumpsi,  flexi,  plausi;  demo,  promo,  sumo,  are  old  compounds. 

2.  Verbs  in  io  of  the  third  conjugation  are  conjugated  as 
follows :  — 

capio,  cepi,  capt-,  take.  -licio,  -lexi,  -lect-,  entice. 

cupio,  cupivi,  cuplt-,  desire.  pario,  peperi,  part-  (pariturus), 
-cutio,  -cussi,  -cuss-,  shake.  bring  forth. 

facio,  feci,  fact-,  make.  quatio,   — ,    quass-,  shake. 

fodio,  fodi,  foss-,  dig.  rapio,  rapui,  rapt-,  seize. 

fugio,  fugi,  fugit-,_/fe0.  sapio,  sapivi,  or  sapui,  be  wise. 

jacio,  jeci,  jact-,  throw.  -spicio,  -spexi,  -spect-.  view. 

3.  Those   otherwise   conjugated   are   the    following   (see 
§  30,  3,  a,  b). 

ago,  egi,  act-,  drive.  cudo,  -cudi,  -cus-,  forge,  [down. 

alo,  alui,  alt-  (alit-),  nourish.  -cumbo  [CUB],  cubui,  cubit-,  lie 

arcesso,  ivi,  arcesslt-,  summon,  curro,  cucurri,  curs-,  run. 

bibo,  bibi,  bibit-,  drink.  depso,  depsui,  depst-,  knead. 

cado,  cecidi,  cas-,y/7//.  disco  [DIG],  didici(discit-),/e#r#. 

caedo,  cecidi,  caes-,  cut.  divido,  divisi,  divis-,  divide. 

cano,  cecini,  cant-,  sing".  -do, -didi,  -dit-  (as  in  abdo,  &c., 
capesso,  capessivi,  undertake.          with  credo,  vendo),  put  [DHA] 

cedo,  cessi,  cess-,  yield.  edo,  edi,  esum,  eat  (§  37,  5). 
-cello,  -cellui(-culi),  -eels-, push,  emo,  emi,  empt-,  buy. 

-cendo,  -.cendi,  -cens-,  kindle.  facesso,  facessi,facessit-,£A*?c#/£. 

cerno,  -crevi,  -cret-,  decree.  fallo,  fefelli,  fals-,  deceive. 

colo,  colui,  cult-,  dwell,  till.  -fendo,  -fendi,  -fens-,  ward  off. 

compesco,  compescui,  restrain,  fero,  ferre,  tuli,  lat-,  bear  (§  37, 

consulo,  lui,  consult-,  consult.  findo  [FID],  fidi,  fiss-,  split.   [4). 

cresco,  crevi,  cret-,  increase.  fido,  fisus  sum,  trust.. 


33,  3-]  THIRD    CONJUGATION.  73 

fingo  [FIG],  finxi,  fact- >f ask  ion.  premo,  pressi,  press-,  press. 
fluo,  fluxi,  flux-,^/fozt>.       {break,  pungo  [PUG],   pupugi,    punct-, 
frango  [FRAG],  fregi,  fract-,   to     prick. 

fremo,  fremui,  fremit-,  roar.         qusero,  qusesivi,  quseslt-,  seek. 
frendo,  -fresi,  fress-,  gnash.          quiesco,  quievi,  quiet-,  rest. 
fundo  [FUD],  fudi,  fus-,/0#r.       rudo,  rudivi,  rudlt-,  bray. 
furo,  furui,  rage.  rumpo  [RUP],  rupi,  rupt-,  burst. 

gemo,  gemui,  gemit-,  groan.       ruo,  rui,  rut-  (ruit-),/«//. 
gero,  gessi,  gest-,  carry.  scabo,  scabi,  scratch. 

gignoJGEN],genui,genit-,  &?£•£/.  scando,  scansi,  scans-,  climb. 
ico,  ici,  ict-,  hit.  scindo  [SCID],  scidi,  sciss-,  tear. 

incesso,  incessivi,  attack,   {voke.  scisco,  scivi,  scit-,  decree. 
lacesso,  lacessivi,  lacessit-,  pro-  sero,  sevi,  sat-,  sow. 
lambo,  Iambi,  lambit-,  lap.  sero,  serui,  sert-,  entwine. 

lavo,    lavi,    lot-    (laut-),   wash  sido,  sidi  (sedi),  sess-,  settle. 

(reg.  of   ist  conj.).  sino,  sivi,  sit-,  permit. 

lego,  legi(intellexi),lect-,^w/^£/'.  sisto  [STA],  stiti,  stat-,  stop. 
lino  [LI],  levi  (livi),  lit-,  smear,  solvo,  solvi,  solut-,^«y,  loose. 
linquo  [LIC],  -liqui,  -lict-,  leave,  spargo,  sparsi,  sparr,-,  scatter. 
luo,  lui,  luit-,  wash.  sperno,  sprevi,  spret-,  scorn. 

mando,  mansi,  mans-,  chew.        sterno,  stravi,  strat-,  strew. 
mergo,  mersi,  mers-,  plunge.       sterto,  stertui,  snore. 
meto,  messui,  mess-,  reap.  strepo,  strepui,  strepit-,  sound. 

mitto,  misi,  miss-,  send.  -stinguo,-stinxi,-stinct-,^«£;/c^. 

molo,  molui,  molit-,  grind.          stringo,  strinxi,  strict-,  bind. 
necto  [NEC],  nexi  (nexui),  nex-,  struo,  struxi,  struct-,  build. 

weave.  suesco,  suevi,  suet-,  be  wont. 

nosco[GNo],  novi,not-(cognit-),  surgo,  surrexi,  surrect-,  rise. 
nuo,  nui,  nuit-,  nod.          [know,  tango  [TAG],  tetigi,  tact-,  touch. 
occulo,  occului,  occult-,  hide.      tendo,    tetendi     (-tendi),     tens- 
pando,    pandi,     pans-    (pass-),      (tent-),  stretch. 

open.   •  tergo,  tersi,  ters-,  wipe. 

pango    [PAG],    tpegi    (pepigi),tero,  trivi,  trlt-,  rub. 

f  pact-,  fasten.  texo,  texui,  text-,  weave. 

parco,  peperci,  parcit-,  spare.      tollo    [TOL]    (sustuli,    sublat-), 
pasco,  pavi,  past-,/e<?oT.  tremo,  tremui,  tremble,     [raise. 

pello,  pepuli,  puls-,  drive.  tundo  [TUD],  tutudi,  tuns-,  beat. 

pendo,  pependi,  pens-,  weigh,     uro,  ussi,  ust-,  burn. 
pergo,  perrexi,  perrect-,  go  on.    vello,  velli  (vulsi),  vuls-,  pluck. 
peto,  petivi,  petit-,  seek.  verro,  verri,  vers-,  sweep. 

pingo  [PIG],  pinxi,  pict-,  paint,  verto,  verti,  vers-,  turn. 
pinso,  pinsi,  pins-(pinst-,  pist-),  vinco  [vie],  vici,  vict-,  conquer. 

bruise.  viso  [VID],  visi,  vis-,  visit. 

pono  [POS],  posui,  posit-,  put.     vivo,  vixi,  vict-,  live. 
posco,  poposci  (posciturus,)  de-  volvo,  volvi,  volut-,  turn. 

mand.  vomo,  vomui,  vomit-,  vomit. 

prehendo,  di,  prehens-,  seize. 

Those  reduplicated  in  the  perfect  wz  —  cado,  ccedo,  curro, 
disco,  fallo,  pango,  parco,  pello,  pendo,  posco,  pungo,  tendo, 
tundo. 


tundo. 


74 


FOURTH    CONJUGATION. 


[34. 


audior 

audiar 

audiris  (re) 

audiaris  (re) 

audltur 

audiatur 

audlmur  , 

audiamur 

audimini 

audiamini 

audiuntur 

audiantur 

34.     FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE.  INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present,  I  hear.  I  am  heard. 

audio,  I  hear.       audiam 
audis,  thouhearest.audias 
audit,  he  hears,      audiat 
audimus,  we  hear,  audiamus 
auditis,  you  hear,  audiatis 
audiunt,  they  hear,  audiant 

Imperfect,  /  heard  (was  hearing).  I  was  heard. 

audiebam  audirem  audiebar  audirer 

audiebas 
audiebat 
audiebamus 
audiebatis 
audiebant 

Future,  /  shall  hear. 
audiam,  /  shall  hear. 
audies 
audiet  t 
audiemus 
audietis 
audient 

Perfect,  /  hei 
audivi,  /  heard. 
audivisti 
audivit 
audivimus 
audivistis 
audiveruut  (re) 

Pluperfect,  I  had  heard. 
aucliveram,  1  had  audivissem 
audiveras  [heard,  audivisses 
audiverat .  audivisset 

audiveramus 
audiveratis 


audires 
audiret 

audiebaris  (re) 
audiebatur 

audireris  (re) 
audiretur 

audiremus 
audiretis 
audirent 

audiebamur 
audiebamini 
audiebaiitur 

audiremur 
audiremini 
audirentur 

hear.                                      1  shall  be  heard. 

ear. 

audiar 
audieris  (re) 
audietur 

audiemur 
audiemmi 
audientur 

d  (have  heard). 
audiverim 
audiveris 
audiverit 

I  was  (have  been)  heard. 
auditus  sum       aiiditus  sim 
auditus  es            auditus  sis 
auditus  est           auditus  sit 

audiverimus 
audiveritis 
audiverint 

auditi  sumus 
auditi  estis 
auditi  sunt 

auditi  simus 
auditi  sitis 
auditi  sint 

/  had  been  heard. 
auditus  eram       auditus  essem 


auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 
audivissemus  auditi  eramus 
audivissetis     auditi  eratis 


auditus  esses 
auditus  esset 
auditi  essemus 
auditi  essetis 
auditi  essent 


audiverant  audivissent     auditi  erant 

Fut.  Perfect,  /  shall  have  heard.  I  shall  have  been  heard. 

audivero,  /  shall  have  heard.        auditus  ero 
audiveris 
audiverit 
audiverimus 
audiveritis 


audiverint 


auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 
auditi  erimus 
auditi  eritis 
auditi  erunt 


34:    I,2J    35.]  FOURTH    CONJUGATION.  75 

ACTIVE.  IMPERATIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  Plur.  Sing.  Plur. 

PR.  2.  audi,  hear,  audite  audire  audimini 

F.    2.  audito  auditote         - 

3.  audito  audiunto  -      auditor  audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

PR.  audire          PF.  audivisse    PR.  audiri         PF.  auditus  esse 
F.     auditurus  esse  F.     auditum  iri  (auditus  fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

audiens  auditurus          auditus  audiendus 

GER.  audiendum,  di,  &c.  SUP.  auditum,  auditu 

1  .  There  are  —  besides  a  few  deponents  and  regular 
derivatives  in  -urio  —  about  60  verbs  of  this  conjugation,  a 
large  proportion  of  them  being  descriptive  verbs  :  viz., 
barrio,  roar  (as  an  elephant)  ;  crocio,  croak  ;  cue  urio,  crow  ; 
dentio,  teethe;  ebullio,  bubble;  effutio,  drivel;  frigutio,  stutter; 
fritinnio,  twitter;  gannio,  yelp;  glutio,  gulp;  gruimio,  grunt; 
hinnio,  neigh  ;  hirrio,  snarl  ;  ligurio,  lick  ;  lipio,  scream  (as  a 
hawk);  lippio,  blink;  mugio,  bellow;  muttio,  mutter;  pavio, 
trample  ;  scalpturio,  scratch  ;  scaturio,  gush  ;  singultio,  hiccup  ; 
tinnio,  tinkle;  tussio,  cough;  vagio,  cry. 

2.    Those   not  conjugated  regularly,  like  audio,  are  the 
followin    :.  — 


amicio,  amixi  (amicui),  amict-,  reperio,  reperi, 

clothe.  salio,  salui,  salt-,  leap. 

aperio,  aperui,  apert-,  open.  .       sancio,  sanxi,  sanct-,  sanction. 
comperio,  peri,  compert-,  find,    sarcio,  sarsi,  sart-,^V?/c>£. 
farcio,farsi  (farct-)  (-tum),s//£^  sehtio,  sensi,  sens-,  feel. 
fulcio,  fulsi,  fult-,  prop.  sepelio,  sepelivi,  sepult-,  bury. 

haurio,  hausi,  haust-,  drain.        sepio,  sepsi,  sept-,  hedge  in. 
operio,  operui,  opert-,  cover.       venio,  veni,  vent-,  come. 
raucio,  rausi,  raus-,  be  hoarse,     vincio,  vinxi,  vinct-,  bind. 


35.     DEPONENT  VERBS. 


1.    Deponent  Verbs  have  the  form  of  the  Passive  voice, 
with  an  active  or  reflexive  signification :  as, 

1.  miror,  mirari,  miratus,  admire. 

2.  vereor,  vereri,  veritus,  fear. 
£.   sequor,  sequi,  secutus,  follow. 
4.  p6tior,  potiri,  potitus,  possess. 


76 


DEPONENT    VERBS. 


[35:   i. 


The  synopsis  of  these  verbs  is  given  as  follows:  — 


potior 
potiebar  1 
potiar 
potitus  sum 
„     eram 


INDICATIVE. 

PRES.  miror  vereor  sequor 

IMP.  mirabar  verebar  sequebar 

FUT.  mirabor  verebor  sequar 

PERF.  miratus  sum    veritus  sum    secutus  sum 
PLUP.  „        eram        „        eram         „       eram 

FUT.  P.  „       ero  „       ero  „       ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRES.  mirer  verear  sequar  potiar 

IMP.  mirarer  vererer  sequerer  potirer 

PERP.  miratus  sim     veritus  sim     secutus  sim      potitus  sim 
PLUP.  „       essem      „       essem       „       essem       ,,    6ssem 

IMPERAT.  mirare,  ator  verere,  etor  sequgre,  itor  potire,  itor 

INPIN.  mirari  vereri  sequi  potiri 

PART.  PR.  mirans  verens  sequens  potiens 

FUT.  miraturus  veriturus  secuturus  potiturus 

PERF.  miratus  veritus  secutus  potitus 

GER.  mirandus  verendus  sequendus  potiendus 

a.  These  verbs  have  the  participles  of  both  voices  :  as,  mirans, 
admiring ;    miraturus,    about  to   admire ;    miratus,    having  ad- 
mired;   mirandus,  to-be-admired  (admirable). 

b.  The  participle  in  dus  (gerundive)  has  necessarily  a  passive 
meaning,  and  hence  is  found  only  in  transitive  verbs,  or  of  neuter 
verbs  used  impersonally  (§  39,  c) :    as,  potienda  est  tellus,  the 
land  must  be  won  ;  pugnandum  est  nobis,  we  must  fight. 

c.  Most  deponents  are  neuter  or  reflexive  in  their  meaning, 
corresponding  to  what  in  Greek  is  called  the  middle  voice. 

d>*   More  than  half  of  all  deponents  are\.of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, and  all  of  these  are  regular. 

e.  About  twenty  verbs  of  active  signification  are  found  in  both 
active  and  passive  forms  :  as,  mereo  or  mereor,  deserve. 

f.  Sgme  deponents  are  occasionally  used  in  a  passive  significa- 
tion :    as,  criminor,  /  accuse  or  /  am  accused. 

g.  The  perfect  participle  of  verbs  otherwise  deponent  is  often 
passive :    as,  mercatus,  bought ;   adeptus,  obtained. 

h.   The  following  list  contains  all  the  irregular  deponents :  — 

adipiscor,  i,  adeptus,  obtain.        -miniscor,  i,  -mentus,  think. 

metior,  iri,  mensus,  measure. 
morior,  i  (iri),  mortuus  (rnori- 

turus,  moribundus),  die. 
nanciscor,  i,  nactus  (nanctus), 

find. 

nascor,  i,  natus,  be  born- 
nitor,  i,  nisus  (nixus),  strive. 
obliviscor,  i,  obll tus, jfo/^/. 
opperior,  iri,  oppertus,  await. 


expergiscor,  i,  -perrectus,  rouse. 
experior,  iri,  expertus,  try. 
fateor,  eri,  fassus,  confess. 
fruor,  i,  fructus,  enjoy. 
fungor,  i,  functus,  fulfil. 
gradior,  i,  gressus,  step. 
irascor,  i,  iratus,  be  angry. 
labor,  i,  lapsus,  fall. 
loquor,  i,  locutus,  speak. 


35:   2;   36.]  DERIVATIVE    VERBS.  77 

ordior,  iri,  orsus,  begin,      [rise,  queror,  i,  questus,  complain. 
orior,  i    (iri),   ortus   (oriturus),  reor,  reri,  ratus,  think. 
paciscor,  i,  pactus,  bargain.         sequor,  i,  secutus,y<?//0w. 
patior,  i,  passus,  suffer.  tueor,  eri,  tuitus  (tutus),  defend. 

-plector,  i,  -plexus,  clasp.  ulciscor,  i,  ultus,  avenge. 

proficiscor,  i,  profectus,  set-out,  utor,  i,  usus,  use,  employ. 

2.  Semi-Deponents.  A  few  verbs,  having  no  perfect 
stem,  form  the  tenses  of  completed  action  like  the  passive : 
these  are  called  semi-deponents  or  neuter  passives.  They  are 
the  following :  — 

audeo,  audere,  ausus,  dare. 
fido,  fidere,  fisus,  trust. 
gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus,  rejoice. 
soleo,  solere,  solitus,  be  wont. 

a*  From  audeo  there  is  an  old  subjunctive  ausim.  The 
form  sodes  (for  si  audes),  an  thou  wilt,  is  frequent  in  the 
dramatists. 

b.  The  active  forms  vapulare,  to  be  flogged,  and  venire,  to 
be  sold  (venum  ire,  go  to  sale),  having  a  passive  meaning,  are 
sometimes  called  neutral  passives.     To  these  may  be  added  fieri 
(fio),  to  be  made,  and  exsulare,  to  be  banished  (live  in  exile). 

36,     DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 

Several  classes  of  verbs  have  derivative  meanings  corre- 
sponding to  their  form.  (For  their  formation,  see  §  44.) 

a.  INCEPTIVES  or  INCHOATIVES  end  in  -sco,  and  denote  the 
beginning  of  an  action:  as,  calesco,  /  grow  warm  (caleo) ; 
vesperascit,  it  is  getting  late  (vesper).  They  are  of  the  third 
conjugation,  and  have  only  the  Present  stem,  though  often  com- 
pleted by  forms  of  simple  verbs. 

&.  INTENSIVES  or  ITERATIVES  end  in  -to  or  -ito,  and  denote 
&  forcible  or  repeated  action :  as,  jactat,  he  hurls  (jacio) ;  dic- 
titabat,  he  kept  saying  (dico).  They  are  of  the  first  conjugation. 

NOTE.  —  Iteratives  (or  Frequentatives),  though  distinct  in  meaning 
from  Intensives,  are  not  always  distinguished  from  them  in  form. 

c.  Another   form  of    Intensives    (sometimes   called   MEDITA- 
TIVES,  or   verbs   of  practice)   ends  in   -sso,   denoting  a  certain 
energy  or  eagerness  of  action :   as,  facessit,  he  makes  haste  to 
do.     They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  with  perfect  and  supine  of 
the  fourth :    as,  lacesso,  lacessivi,  lacessitum,  to  provoke. 

d.  DIMINUTIVES  end   in   -illo,  and   denote  a  feeble   or  petty 
action:  as,  cantillare,  to  chirp  or  warble  (cano,  sing). 


78 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


[37:  i. 


6.  DESIDERATIVES  end  in  urio,  expressing  longing  or  wish, 
and  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation.  Only  these  three  are  in  com- 
mon use,  emptiirio  (emo,  buy),  esurio  (edo,  eat),  parturio 
(pario,  bring  forth).  Others  occur  for  comic  effect  in  the 
dramatists. 

37.     IRREGULAR  VERBS. 
[For  esse  and  its  compounds,  see  §  29.] 
Several  verbs  retain  older  forms  in  the  tenses  of  the 
present  stem,  or  combine  two  roots  in  their  inflection. 
These  are  called  Irregular  Verbs. 

The  most  common  verbs  of  this  class  are  — \ 

1.  V51o,  velle,  volui,   to  wish  (the  supine  stem  appears  in 
vultus,  countenance). 

2.  Nolo  (non  volo),  nolle,  nolui,  to  be  unwilling. 

3.  Malo  (mage-volo),  malle,  malui,  to  prefer. 

[For  the  inflection  of  volo,  nolo,  malo,  see  opposite  page.] 

4.  Fero,  ferre,  tuii,  latum,  to  bear. 

NOTE.  —  The  perfect  tuli  is  for  tetuli  (which  sometimes  occurs), 
from  TUL  in  tollo ;  the  Supine  latum  for  tlatum  (cf.  rTirjro^). 


ACTIVE. 


PRES. 


IMP. 
FUT. 
PERF. 
PLUP. 


INDIG. 
fero 
fers 
fert 

ferimus 
fertis 
ferunt 
ferebam 
feram 
tuli 
tuleram 


F.  PERF.  tulero 

Sing. 

PRES.      fer 
FUT.        ferto 
ferto 

PEES. 
ferre 

PRES. 
ferens 


E-                                        PASSIVE. 

SUBJ. 

feram 
feras 
ferat 
feramus 
feratis 
ferant 

INDIC. 

feror 
ferris 
fertur  , 
ferimur 
ferimiiii 
feruntur 

SUBJ. 

ferar 
feraris  (re) 
feratur 
feramur 
feramini 
ferantur 

ferrem 

ferebar 

ferrer 

ferar 

tulerim 

latus  sum 

latus  sim 

tulissem 

latus  eram 

latus  essem 

latus  ero 

IMPERATIVE. 
Plur.                        Sing. 

ferte                ferre 

Plur. 

ferimini 

fertote 
ferunto 

fertor 

feruntor 

INFINITIVE. 

PERF.                    PRES. 
tulisse            ferri 

PERF. 
latus  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 
FUT.                     PKRF. 
laturus           latus 

OER. 
ferendus 

37.] 


VOLO,   NOLO,   MALO. 


79 


INFLECTION  OP  volo  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS. 


VOLO,  wW. 

NOLO,  will  not. 

MAIiO,  prefer. 

INDIC.          SUBJ. 

INDIC.               SUBJ. 

INDIC.              SUBJ. 

PRESENT. 

volo              velim 

nolo               nolim 

malo              malim 

vis                 veils 

nonvis           nolis 

mavis            malis 

vult               velit 

nonvult         nolit 

mavult          maiit 

vorumus     veli'mus 

norumus       noli'mus 

marumus     mali'mus 

vultis            velitis 

nonvultis      nolitis 

mavultis       malifcis 

volunt          velint 

nolunt           nolint 

malunt         malint 

IMPERFECT. 

volebam      vellem 

nolebam        nollem 

malebam      mallem 

volebas        velles 

nolebas          nolles 

malebas        malles 

volebat        vellet 

nolebat          nollet 

malebat        mallet 

volebamus  vellemus 

nolebamus    nollemus 

malebamus  mallemus 

volebatis     velletis 

nolebatis       nolletis 

malebatis     malle.tis 

volebant      vellent 

nolebant        nollent 

malebant     mallent 

FUTURE. 

volam 

nolam  t 

malamf 

voles 

noles 

males 

volet 

nolet 

malet 

volemus 

nolemus 

malemus 

voletis 

noletis 

maletis 

volent 

nolent 

malent 

PERFECT.      » 

volui              -erim 

nolui             -erim 

malui              -erim 

voluisti          -eris 

noluisti         -eris 

maluisti          -eris 

voluit             -erit 

noluit             -erit 

maluit             -erit 

voluimus       -erimus 

ndluimiis      -erimus 

maluimus       -erimus 

voluistis        -eritis 

noluistis        -eritis 

maluistis        -eritis 

voluerunt     -erint 

noluerunt     -erint 

maluerunt     -erint 

PLUPERFECT. 

volueram     -issem 

nolueram     -issem 

malueram      -issem 

volueras        -isses 

nolueras        -isses 

malueras        -isses 

voluerat       -isset 

noluerat       -isset 

maiuerat        -isset 

volueramus  -issemus 

nolueramus  -issemus 

malueramus  -issemus 

volueratis     -issetis 

nolueratis    -issetis 

malueratis     -issetis 

voluerant     -issent 

noluerant     -issent 

maluerant      -issent 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

voluero 

noluero 

maluero 

volueris 

nolueris 

malueris 

voluerit 

noluerit 

maluerit 

voluerimus 

noluerimus 

maluerimus 

volu  eritis 

nolueritis 

malaeritis 

voluerint 

noluerint 

maluerint 

IMPERATIVE. 

PR. 

noli,        noli'te,  do  not. 

EUT. 

noli'to,    nolito'te,  thou 

s/talt  not,  i/e  shall  not. 

noli'to^    nolunto,    he  sliall  not^  tliey  shall  not. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRES.      velle 

nolle 

malle 

PERF.      voluisse 

noluisse 

maluisso 

PARTICIPLE. 

PRESENT,     volens,  willing.  nolens,  unwilling. 

GERUND,      volendi,  volendo  nolendi 


fRare. 


80  IRREGULAR   VERBS.  [37:  5,  6,  7. 

5.  Edo,  to  eat  (regular  of  third  conjugation),  has  also  some 
forms  directly  from  the  root  without  a  characteristic  vowel :  viz. , 

IND.  PRES.  es,  est,  estis ;  SUBJ.  Pres.  edim,  Imperf.  essem  ; 
IMPERAT.  es,  esto,  este ;  INFIN.  esse ;  PASSIVE,  estur,  essetur ; 
and,  in  compounds,  comes,  comest,  comestum,  comesum; 
exest,  exesset,  exesse. 

6.  Eo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  to  go  (root  i,  cf.  elfii ;  the  e  stands  for  ei 
produced  by  vowel-increase  from  i).     The  forms  of  eo  are  found 
in  veneo,  to  be  sold  (venum  eo,  go  to  sale). 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRES.  S.    eo,  is,  it  earn,  eas,  eat 

P.    imus,  itis,  emit  eamus,  eatis,  eant 

IMP.  ibam,  ibas,  ibat  irem,  ires,  iret 

ibamus,  ibatis,  ibaiit  iremus,  iretis,  irent 

FUT.          ibo,  ibis,  ibit 

ibimus,  ibitis,  ibunt 

PERF.        ivi  (ii)  iverim  (ierim) 

PLUP.        iveram  (ieram)  ivissem  (issem) 

FUT.  P.     ivero 
IMPERAT.  i,  ite ;  itote,  eunto 

INFIN.       PR.  ire  PER.  ivisse  (isse) 

PART.        P.     iens,  euntis  F.       iturus 

7.  Facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  to  make,  —  regular,  with  the 
peculiar  forms  fut.  perf.  faxo,  perf.  subj.  faxim,  imperat.  fac.     It 
has  for  its  passive 

fio,  fieri,  factus  sum,  to  fyjmade,  or  become, 

of  which  the  tenses  of  the  first  stem  are  regular  of  the  fourth  con- 
jugation, but  with  subj.  imperf.  fierem. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRES.  S.    fio,  fis,  fit  fiam,  fias,  fiat/ 

P.    fimus,  fitis,  fiunt  fiamus,  fiatis,  fiant 

IMP.  fiebam  fierem 

FUT.  fiam,  fies,  &c. 

PERF.  factus  sum  factus  sim 

PLUP.  factus  eram  factus  essem 

FUT.  P.  factus  ero 

IMPERAT.  fi,  fite ;  fito,  fitote,  fiunto 

INFIN.  PRES.  fieri  P.   factus  esse 

PART.  PERF.  factus  faciendus 


38:    I,  2.]  DEFECTIVE    VERBS.  81 

Most  compounds  of  facio  with  prepositions  change  a  to  i  or  e, 
and  form  the  passive  and  imperative  regularly :  as, 

conficio,  conficere,  confeci,  confectum,  to  finish. 
Other  compounds  retain  a,  and  have  -fio  in  the  passive  :  as, 

bene-facio  (-fa'cis),  -feci,  -factum;  pass,  benefio,  to  benefit. 
A  few  isolated  forms  of  -fio  occur  with  prepositions  (see  §  38,  h). 

38,     DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

1.  Some  verbs  have  lost  their  Present  stem,  and  use  only 
tenses  of  the  Perfect   (sometimes  with  the  meaning  of  the 
present),  in  which  they  are  inflected  regularly. 

a*  Coepi  (root  CO-AP  as  in  apiscor),  I  began.  Infin.  coep- 
isse;  Fut.  Part,  coepturus.  A  passive  participle  coeptus  is 
used  with  the  passive  infinitive.  For  the  Present,  incipio  is  used. 

&.  Odi,  /  hate  (root  6d-  in  odium)  ;  with  the  participles  osus, 
hating  or  hated  (perosus,  utterly  hateful),  osurus,  likely  to  hate. 

€•  Memiiii,  /  remember  (root  MEN,  as  in  mens,  reminiscor), 
with  the  imperative  memento  and  mementote. 

NOTE.  —  Odi  and  memiui,  having  a  Perfect  form  with  a  present 
meaning,  are  called  preteritive  verbs. 

2.  Many  verbs  have  only  the  Present  stem,  and  in  many 
the  simple  verb  is  incomplete,  but  the  parts  appear  in  the 
compounds.     Some  occur  very  commonly,  but  only  in  a  few 
forms :  as, 

a.  Aio  (root  AGH  found  in  adagium  and  in  nego,  which  has 
passed  into  the  first  conjugation) : 

IND.  PRES.  Sing,  aio,  I  say.  Plur.  

ais 

ait  aiuiit 

IMPERF.  aiebam  (aibam),  aiebas,  &c. 
SUBJ.  PRES.  aias,  aiat,  aiant. 
IMPERAT.  ai.  —  PART,  aiens. 

6.  Inquam,  say  (used  only  in  quotations,  as  the  English  quoth, 
which  is  from  the  same  root) : 

IND.  PRES.  Sing,  inquam  Plur.  inqu&nus 

inquis  inquitis 

inquit  inqueunt 

IMPERF.  inquibat.  —  FUT.  inquiet.  —  PERF.  inquisti. 

JMPERAT.  inque,  inquito. 

4* 


82  IMPERSONAL    VERBS.  [38:   2;    39. 

€•  Fari,  to  speak,  forms  the  periphrastic  tenses  regularly :  as, 
fatus  sum,  eram,  &c.  It  has  also 

IND.  PRES.  fatur,  faiitur.  —  FUT.  fabor,  fabitur. 

LMPERAT.  fare.  —  INFLN.  fari.  —  PART,  fanti   (with  the  com- 
pound infans,  as  noun). 

GERUND,  fandus,  to  be  spoken  of  (with  the  compounds  infan- 

dus,  nefandus,  abominable).  —  SUPINE,  fatu. 
The  compounds  affamur,  affabimur,  praefamiiii,  &c.,  occur. 

d*  Quaeso,  /  ask,  beg  (an  original  form  of  quaero),  has 
quaeso,  quaesumus,  quaesere,  quaesens. 

€•   Ovare,  to  triumph,  has  the  following : 
ovat,  ovet,  ovaret;  ovans,  ovandi,  ovatus,  ovaturus. 
jf.   A  few  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Imperative  :    as, 
salve,  salvete,  hail!  also  salvere  (from  salvus). 
ave  (or  have),  avete,  aveto,  hail,  or  farewell. 
cedo,  cedite  (cette),  give,  tell. 
apage!  begone!  (properly  a  Greek  word). 

gr«   Queo,  /  can,  nequeo,  /  cannot,  are  conjugated  like  eo. 
They  are  rarely  used  except  in  the  Present. 
IND.  PRES.    queo,  quis,  quit,  quimus,  quitis,  queunt. 

IMP.      quibam,  quibat,  quibant.  —  FUT.  quibo,  quibunt. 
PERF.    quivi,  quivit,  quiverunt. 
SUBJ.  PRES.  queam,  &c.  —  IMP.  quirem,  quire t,  quirent. 

PERF.  quiverit.  —  PLUP.  quissent. 
INFIN.  quire,  quivisse  (quisse).  —  PART,  quiens,  queuntis. 

IND.  PRES.    nequeo   (often  non  queo),  nonquis,  nequit,  ne- 

quimus,  nequitis,  nequeunt. 

IMP.       nequibam,    -ibat,  -ibant. —  FUT.  nequibunt. 
PERF.    nequivi,  nequivisti,  nequivit,  nequiverunt. 
SUBJ.  PRES.  nequeam,  &c.  —  IMP.  nequirem. 
PERF.  nequiverim.  —  PLUP.  nequisset. 
INFIN.  nequire,  nequivisse.  —  PART,  nequiens. 

h*  The  following  compounds  of  fio  have  only  the  forms  confit, 
it  comes  to  pass ;  defit,  it  lacks;  infit,  he  begins  (to  speak). 

39.     IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

Many  verbs,  from  their  meaning,  appear  only  in  the 
third  person  singular,  with  the  infinitive  and  gerund. 
These  are  called  Impersonal  Verbs. 

NOTE.  —  With  impersonal  verbs  the  word  IT  is  used  in  English, 
having  usually  no  representative  in  Latin,  though  id,  hoc,  illud,  are 
often  used  nearly  in  the  same  way. 


39,  40.]  PERIPHRASTIC    FORMS.  83 

Impersonal  Verbs  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

a*  Verbs  expressing  the  operations  of  nature :  as,"  pluit,  it 
rains ;  ningit,  it  snows ;  grandmat,  it  hails ;  fulgurat,  it  lightens. 

In  these,  no  subject  is  distinctly  thought  of;  though  sometimes 
the  name  of  a  deity  is  expressed ;  and,  in  poetic  use,  of  other 
agents  also  :  as,  fundae  saxa  pluunt,  the  slings  rain  stones. 

b»  Verbs  of  feeling,  where  the  person  who  is  the  proper  subject 
becomes  the  object,  as  if  himself  affected  by  the  feeling  expressed 
in  the  verb.  Such  are,  miseret,  it  grieves ;  poenitet,  it  repents  ; 
piget,  it  disgusts;  pudet,  it  shames;  taedet,  it  wearies:  as, 
miseret  me,  /  pity  (it  distresses  me) . 

Such  verbs  often  have  also  a  passive  form :  as,  misereor. 
/  pity  (am  mooed  by  pity)  ;  and  occasionally  other  parts :  as, 
libens,  licens,  poeniturus,  poenitendus,  pudendus. 

c.  By  a  similar  construction,  the  passive  of  intransitive  verbs 
is  very  often  used  impersonally:  as,  pugnatur,  there  is  fighting; 
\  dicitur,  it  is  said ;  parcitur  mihi,  /  am  spared. 

NOTE.  —  This  use  of  the  passive  proceeds  from  its  original  reflexive 
meaning,  the  action  being  regarded  as  accomplishing  itself  ( compare  the 
French  cela  sefait). 

d*  Verbs  which  have  a  phrase  or  clause  as  their  subject :  as, 
libet,  it  pleases ;  licet,  it  is  permitted ;  certum  est,  it  is  resolved ; 
constat,  it  is  clear :  placet,  videtur,  it  seems  good ;  decet,  it  is 
becoming;  delectat,  juvat,  it  delights;  oportet,  necesse  est, 
it  is  needful ;  praestat,  it  is  better ;  interest,  refert,  it  concerns ; 
vacat,  there  is  leisure;  with  verbs  of  happening  and  the.  like. 
Many  of  these  are  also  used  personally. 

40.     PERIPHRASTIC  FORMS. 

When  the  tenses  of  esse  are  used  with  a  Participle,  this 
use  is  called  periphrastic  conjugation.  It  is  most  frequent — 

a*  With  the  participle  in  urus,  to  express  intention,  or  simple 
futurity ;  this  is  sometimes  necessary  in  the  subjunctive:  as,  cum 
venturus  sit,  since  he  is  about  to  come.  This  form  is  sometimes 
called  thsjirst  periphrastic  conjugation;  and,  when  used  with  sim, 
the  future  subjunctive.  *"^> 

6.  With  the  gerundive  to  denote  duty  or  propriety :  as,  vera 
dicenda  sunt,  the  truth  must  be  told.  This  form  is  sometimes 
called  the  second  periphrastic  conjugation. 

C*  With  the  perfect  participle,  in  the  regular  inflection  of  the 
tenses  of  completed  action  in  passives  and  deponents. 

NOTE.  —  The  participle  in  tus  frequently,  and  that  in  ns  regularly, 
is  used  with  esse  simply  as  an  adjective :  as,  sapiens  est,  he  is  wise; 
acceptus  est,  he  is  welcome. 


84  PARTICLES.  [41:   I. 


PARTICLES. 


41.     ADVERBS. 

What  are  called  PARTICLES  —  that  is,  all  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  and   Conjunctions  —  are  real  or  extinct   i 
case-forms,  or  else  compounds  and  phrases. 

In  classification  Particles  cannot  always  be  distinguished  ;  many 
prepositions  and  conjunctions  being  also  reckoned  among  adverbs. 

1.  Derivation.  The  regular  adverbs  of  manner  are 
formed  from  Adjectives. 

[For  the  comparison  of  these  adverbs,  see  §  17,  4.] 

a*  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  change  the 
characteristic  vowel  of  the  stem  into  e  (originally  an  ablative  in 
d)  :  as,  from  carus,  dear,  care,  dearly. 

So  abunde,  saope,  prope,  from  adjectives  not  in  use;  as  also 
prod  (pro),  re-  (red-),  se-,  (sed-). 

b.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  add  -ter  to  the  stem  (most 
being    treated    as    i-stems) :    as,   fortiter,    bravely;    vigilanter, 
watchfully. 

NOTE.  —  This  suffix  is  of  uncertain  origin,  probably  the  same  as 
in  the  Greek  -repos,  and  in  alter,  uter  /  and,  if  so,  these  are  neuter 
accusatives. 

c.  Some  adverbs  of  the   former  class  have  both  forms :  as, 
dure,  duriter;    misere,  miseriter.     (So  allter   from  alius  — 
old  stem  all-.) 

d.  The  neuter  accusative  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  is  often 
used  as  an  adverb  (strictly  a  cognate  accusative,  see  §  52,  i,  d)  : 
as,  multum,  muck;  actutum,  at  once;  facile,  easily;  non  (— ne 
unum),  not ;  iterum  (comparative  of  is),  again. 

e.  The  ablative  neuter  or   (less  commonly)  feminine  is  used 
adverbially:    as,    false,    falsely;    cite,    quickly;    recta    (via), 
straight  (straightway)  ;  contra,  on  the  other  hand;  qua  (parte), 
where;  qui,  how;   alioqui,  otherwise. 


41:    1,2.]  PARTICLES.  85 

/.  A  few  adverbs  are  datives  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  :  as, 
quo,  whither;  adeo,  so;  ultra,  beyond;  citro,  this  side;  retro, 
lack  (compar.  of  uls,  cis,  re) ;  illoc  (illo-ce,  weakened  to  illuc), 
thither. 

ff»  Some  locative  forms  are  used  as  adverbs:  as,  ibi,  there; 
ubi,  where,  &c. ;  peregre,  abroad ;  hie,  here ;  interim,  mean- 
while; deinde,  then;  tamen,  yet;  and  the  compounds  extrin- 
secus,  outside ;  perendie,  day  after  to-morrow. 

h.  Several  feminine  accusatives  are  used  as  adverbs :  as, 
statim,  on  the  spot;  saltim,  with  a  leap  (generally  in  the  form 
saltern,  at  least)  ;  palam,  openly ;  perperam,  wholly  otherwise 
(i.e.,  changed  for  the  worse);  tarn,  quam,  iiam  (which  maybe 
neuters) . 

i.  Several  plural  accusatives,  neuter  and  feminine,  are  used 
adverbially,  as  frustra,  vainly;  alias,  otherwise;  foras,  out  of 
doors. 

/£.  Some  adverbs  are  of  uncertain  formation  :  (1)  those  in  -tus 
(usually  preceded  by  i)  :  as,  penitus,  funditus,  from  the  bottom 
(utterly) ;  divinitus,  providentially,  —  which  are  ablative  in  mean- 
ing ;  (2)  those  in  -dem,  -dam,  -do  (in  quan-do,  when ;  do-nec, 
until),  dum,  perhaps  jam  (from  the  same  root  with  dies, 
diu,  &c.). 

1.  Many  phrases  or  clauses  have   grown  into   adverbs :    as, 
antea,   before;  postmodo,   a  little  after;   denuo    (de   n6vo), 
again ;   prorsus,  utterly ;   quotannis,  every  year ;   quamobrem, 
wherefore;  obviam,  in  the  way ;  pridem,  before  the  day  (i.e.,  be- 
fore this  time) ;  forsan,  a  chance  whether ;  forsitan  (fors  sit  an) , 
perhaps ;  scilicet  (scire  licet),  to  be  sure. 

(For  Numeral  Adverbs,  see  §  18,  3.) 

2.  Classification.     Adverbs,  other  than  those  directly 
formed  from  adjectives,  are  classified  as  follows :  — 

a.    Adverbs  of  Flace. 


ubi,  where,      quo,  -whither,      unde, 

whence.      qua,  by  what  way. 

hie,  here.          hue,  hither. 

hinc, 

hence.           hac,  by  this  way. 

ibi,  there.         eo,  thither. 

inde, 

thence.         ea,  by  the  way. 

istic     ,,             istuc     ,, 

istinc 

„               ista         ,, 

illic     ,,              illuc     ,, 

illinc 

ilia  (iliac)  „ 

alicubi,  somewhere  ; 

aliquo 

alicunde             aliqua. 

ibidem,  in  the  same  place  ; 

eodem 

indidem             eadem. 

alibi,  elsewhere; 

alio 

aliunde               alia. 

ubiubi,  wherever  ; 

quoquo 

undecunque      quaqua. 

ubivis,  anywhere  ; 

quovis 

undique              quavis. 

sicubi,  if  anywhere  ; 

siquo 

sicunile               siqua. 

necubi,  lest  anywhere  ; 

nequo 

necunde              nequa. 

86  ADVERBS.  [41:   2. 

nusquam,  nowhere ;  ultro,  beyond  (or  freely)  ;  citro,  to  this  side; 
intro,  inwardly;  porro,  further  on. 

quorsum  (quo  versum),  to  -what  end?  horsum,  this  'way ;  pror- 
sum,  forward  (prorsus,  utterly) ;  introrsum,  inwardly ; 
retrorsum,  backward ;  sursum,  upward;  deorsum,  down- 
ward ;  seorsum,  apart;  aliorsum,  another  way. 

b.    Adverbs  of  Time. 

quando?   when?   cum  (quom,  quum),  when  (relat). 

nunc,  now  ;  tune  (turn),  then;  mox,  presently. 

primum  (primo),}&?/;  deinde  (postea),  next  after;  postremum, 

(postremo),j6W//y. 

umquam  (unquam),  ever ;  numquam,  never ;    semper,  always. 
aliquando,  some  time,  at  length  ;    quandoque   (quandocumque), 

whenever- 

quotiens  (quoties),  how  often;  totiens,  aliquotiens. 
quotidie,  every  day  ;  in  dies,  from  day  to  day. 
nondum,  not  yet;  necdum,  nor  yet ;  vixdum,  scarce  yet ;  quam 

primum,  as  soon  as  possible. 

c.    Adverbs  of  Degree  or  Cause. 

quam,  how,  as  ;   tarn,  so  ;   quam  vis,  however  much. 
cur,  quare,  why ;  quod,  quia,  because  ;  eo,  therefore. 
ita,  sic,  so ;  ut  (uti),  as,  how;  utut,  utcumque,  "however. 
quamquam  (quanquam),  although;  etiam,  quoque,  even,  also. 

d.    Interrogative  Particles. 

an,  -ne,  anne,  utrum,  num,  whether. 

nonne,  whether  not;  numquid,  ecquid,  whether  at  all ;  (ecquid 

intellegis  ?   have  you  any  idea  /*) 

utrum  (num),  -ne,  whether  ;  ...  an  (annon,  necne),  or. 
„  an,  -ne  ,, 

NOTE.  —  The  word  whether  is  not  now  used  in  English,  except  in 
Indirect  Questions  (See  §  71). 

e.    Negative  Particles. 

lion,  not  in  simple  denial;    haud  (hau,  haut),  or  minime,  not 

in  contradiction;    ne,  not  in  prohibition. 
ne,  lest ;  neque,  nee,  nor ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even. 
non  modo  .  .  .  verum  (sed)  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 
non  modo  .  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem,   not  only  NOT  .  .  .  but  not 

even. 

si  minus,  if 'not ;  quo  minus,  so  as  not. 
quin  (relat.),  but  that;  (interrog.)  ivhy  not?  who  (what)  not? 
ne  (in  compos.),  not:   as,  nescio,   /  know  not;  nego  (ne-aio), 

/  say  no  (aio,  /  say  yes)]  nemo  (ne  homo),  no  one;  ne 

quis,  lest  any  one. 


41:  2,  3-]  ADVERBS.  87 

REMARK.  —  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative:  as, 
nemo  non  audiet,  even/  one  will  hear. 

This  is  especially  frequent  with  compounds  of  non :  as,  nonnul- 
lus  (=aliquis),  some;  nonnihil  (=aliquid),  something;  nonnemo 
(=  aliquot),  sundry  persons  ;  nonnumquam  (=  aliquotiens),  some- 
times; necnon,  also. 

On  the  other  hand,  nemo  non,  nulli  non,  every  one;  nihil  non, 
every  thing ;  numquam  lion,  always,  &c. 

3.  Signification.  The  following  adverbs  require  special 
explanation :  — 

a.  Etiam,  also,  is  stronger  than  quoque,  and   usually  pre- 
cedes the  emphatic  word,  while  quoque  follows  it :  as, 

terret  etiam  nos,  ac  minatur  (Rose.  Am.  40),  us  also  he  terrifies 

and  threatens. 
hoc  quoque  maleficium  (id.),  this  crime  too. 

b.  Nunc,  now,  means  definitely  the  present  time;  jam,  already, 
—  or,  with  the  future,  presently ;  with  negatives,  no  longer,  —  has 
reference  to  the  past.     Tune,  then,  is  a  strengthened  form  of  turn, 
which  is  correlative  with  cum,  when:  as, 

mine  jam  confiteris,  noiv  at  length  you  confess. 
non  est  jam  lenitati  locus,  there  is  no  longer  room  for  mercy. 
quod  jam  erat  institutum,  'which  had  come  to  be  a  practice. 
nunc  quidem  deleta  est,  tune  florebat  (Lael.  4),  notv  (Y/s  true) 

she  [Greece]  is  ruined,  then  she  was  in  her  glory. 
turn  cum  regnabat,  at  the  time  he  reigned. 

c.  Certo  means  certainly ;  certe  (usually),  at  any  rate :  as, 

certo  scio,  I  know  for  a  certainty. 

aut  jam  urgentis  aut  certe  adventantis  senectutis  (C.  M.  i.),  of 
old  age,  -which  is  already  pressing  or  at  least  approaching. 

d.  Primum,  first   (first   in  order,   or  for   the  first   time],    is 
usually  followed  by  delude,  turn,  .  .  .  denique ;  primo,  at  first, 
by  postea  (post)  or  mox,  afterwards.    (The  adjective  form  is  pre- 
ferred in  such  phrases  as  nos  primi,  we  first,  &c.)     Thus, 

primum  de  genere  belli,  deinde  de  magnitudine,  turn  de  impera- 
tore  deligendo  (Manil.  2),  first  of  the  kind  of  ivar,  next 
of  its  greatness,  then  of  the  choice  of  commander. 

c.  Quidem,  indeed,,  is  emphatic,  and  often  has  a  concessive 
meaning,  especially  when  followed  by  sed,  autem,  &c.  (see  above 
nunc  quidem,  &c.).  With  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even  or  not 
either,  the  emphatic  word  must  stand  between :  as, 

senex  ne  quod  speret  quidem  habet  (C.  M.  19),  an  old  man  has 

NOT  EVEN  any  thing  to  hope  for. 
nejugurtha  quidem  quietus  erat  (Jug.  51),  NOR  was  Jugurtha 

quiet  EITHER. 


88  PREPOSITIONS.    *  [42:   I,  2. 


42.     PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Prepositions  are  not  originally  distinguished  from 
adverbs  in  form  or  meaning.  They  are,  however,  distin- 
guished in  their  use,  requiring  to  be  followed  by  some 
special  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

a.  The  following  Prepositions  require  the  accusative: — 

ad,  to.  erga,  towards.  post,  after. 

adversus,  or  extra,  outside.  praeter,  beyond. 

adversum,  towards,  infra,  below.  prope,  near. 

ante,  before.  inter,  among.  propter,  on  account  of. 

apud,  atj  near.  intra,  inside.  secundum,  next  to. 

circa,  or  juxta,  near.  supra,  above. 

circum,  around.  6b,  on  account  of.  trans,  across. 

circiter,  about.  penes,  in  the  power,  ultra,    on  the  further 

cis,  citra,  this  side,  per,  through.  side. 

contra,  against.  pone,  behind.  versus,  towards. 

&•  The  following  require  the  ablative :  — 

a,  ab,  abs,  from,  by.  e,  ex,  out  of. 

absque,  but  for,  without.  prae,  in  comparison  with. 

coram,  in  presence  of.  pro,  in  front  of,  for. 

cum,  with.  sine,  without. 

de,  from.  tenus,  up  to,  or  as  far  as. 

c»  The  following  may  take  either  case,  but  usually  with  a  dif- 
ference in  meaning :  — 

in,  into,  in;  sub,  under;  subter,  beneath;  super,  above. 

In  and  sub,  when  followed  by  the  Accusative,  signify  motion  to, 
when  by  the  Ablative,  rest  in,  a  place. 

(For  the  Syntax  of  Prepositions,  see  §  56.) 

2.  The  meaning  and  use  of  these  prepositions  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  examples,  which  include  many  adverbial 
phrases :  — 

A,  ab,  aivay  from  (opposite  of  ad)  :  ab  eo  loco,  from  that 
place  ;  a  nobis,  from  our  house  ;  prope  ab  urbe,  near  (not  far 
from)  the  city ;  secundus  a  rege,  next  the  king;  liberare  ab,  to 
set  free  from ;  occisus  ab  hoste  (periit  ab  hoste),  slam  by  an 
enemy  ;  a  fronte,  in  front ;  ab  hac  parte,  on  this  side  ;  a  primo, 
at  first;  ab  re,  afterivards  ;  dolet  ab  animo,  he  grieves  at  heart ; 
ab  initio  ordiri,  to  begin  at  the  beginning ;  stat  ab  amicis,  he 
stands  by  his  friends  ;  ab  hac  contione,  after  this  speech  ;  ab  re 


42:   2.]  PREPOSITIONS.  89 

ejus,  to  his  advantage ;  servus  a  manu,  an  amanuensis',    a  pedi- 
bus,  a  footman. 

NOTE.  —  ab  signifies  direction  from  the  object,  but  towards  the 
speaker;  compare  de  and  ex. 

Absque,  -without:  —  absque  argumento,  without  argument; 
absque  paucis,  except  a  few  ;  absque  me,  but  for  me. 

Ad,  to,  towards,  at  (place  or  time)  :-^eo  ad  patrem,  I  go  to 
my  father  ;  ad  pedes  ejus,  at  his  feet ;  ad  flumen,  near  the  river  ; 
ad  ripas,  on  the  banks;  ad  meridiem,  towards  the  south;  ad 
vesperum,  near  evening ;  ad  tempus,  at  the  (fit)  time;  adiit  ad 
rempublicam,  he  went  into  public  life';  ad  manus,  to  blows;  ad 
petendam  pacem,  to  seek  peace  ;  ad  communem  salutem,jfo;'  the 
common  safety ;  nihil  ad  Csesarem,  nothing  in  comparison  with 
Ccesar  ;  ad  hunc  modum,  in  this  way ;  quem  ad  modum,  how,  as  ; 
ad  nuptias,ybr  the  wedding;  ad  auxilium,  ybr  aid;  ad  hos  ca- 
sus,  for  these  emergencies  ;  ad  centum,  near  a  hundred ;  ad  pri- 
mum  nuntium,  at  the  first  message  ;  ad  hoc,  besides  ;  ad  speciem, 
in  respect  to  form  ;  ad  praesens,  for  the  moment ;  ad  verbum, 
word  for  ^vord;  ad  summum,  in  short,  at  most;  ad  ultimum, 
wholly,  finally  ;  ad  unum,  to  a  man. 

Adversus  (-sum),  opposite,  towards,  against:  —  adversus  mon- 
tem,  over  against  the  mountain;  te  adversum,  to  your  face ;  ad- 
veYsus  eum,  in  comparison  with  him  ;  adversus  ea,  in  reply  to 
this;  adversus  deos,  towards  the  gods. 

Ante,  in  front,  before  (place  or  time):  —  ante  oculos,  before 
his  eyes;  ante  urbem  captam,  before  the  city  was  taken ;  ante 
diem  quintum  (A.D.V.).  Kal  ,  the  fifth  day  before  the  Calends  (third 
day  before  the  end  of  the  month)  ;  ante  quadriennium,  fo#r  years 
before  or  ago ;  ante  alios  carissimus,  dearest  of  all ;  ante  tem- 
pus, too  soon;  ante  omnia,  first  of  all ;  ante  Ciceronem,  before 
Cicero's  time. 

A  pud,  at  or  by  (rarely  of  places)  :  —  apud  forum,  in  the  forum; 
apud  populum,  before  the  people ;  apud  exercitum,  with  the 
army;  apud  aliquem,  at  one's  house;  apud  se,  at  home,  or  in 
his  senses;  apud  Ciceronem,  in  Cicero  (in  his  works);  apud 
antiques,  among  the  ancients. 

Circum  (ace.),  circa  (abl.)>  circiter  (stem  as  in  circus,  circle), 
about,  around: — circum  axem  vertitur,  it  turns  about  the 
axle;  circum  haec  loca,  hereabout;  circa  se  habent,  they  have 
with  them;  (of  time  or  number,  circa  or  circiter,  not  cir- 
cum) :  —  circa  eandem  horam,  about  the  same  hour  ;  circiter  pas- 
sus  mille,  about  a  mile ;  circa  bonas  artes  (late),  in  reference  to 
good  arts  ;  loca  haec  circiter,  hereabout. 

Cis,  citra  (abl.  of  comparative,  compare  Greek  -T€pos),  this 
side  of  (both  motion  towards  and  rest  in ;  opposite  to  ultra)  :  — 
cis  Padum,  this  side  the  Po ;  citra  flumen,  this  side  the  river ; 
citra  rustici  operam,  within  the  labor  of  a  farmer ;  citra  usum, 
without  regard  to  use;  citra  satietatem,  not  to  fulness ;  paucos 
cis  dies,  within  a  few  days. 


90  PREPOSITIONS.  [42:    2. 

Contra  (abl.  comp  of  cum),  opposite,  against:  —  contra  Itali- 
am,  over  against  Italy  ;  contra  hostem,  against  the  enemy,  contra 
munera,  as  a  set-off  to  the  gifts ;  haec  contra,  this  in  reply-, 
contra  autem,  but  on  the  other  hand,  adv. ;  quod  contra,  whereas 
on  the  other  hand,  adv. ;  non  pro  me  sed  contra  me,  not  for  but 
against  me  ;  contra  fas,  contrary  to  right. 

Coram,  in  presence  of  (only  of  persons)  :  —  coram  judicious, 
before  the  judges  ;  Germanico  coram  (Tac.),  usually  an  adverb. 

Cum,  with  (together  in  place  or  time)  :  —  cum  fratre,  with  his 
brother  ;  abi  cum  donis,  away  with  your  gifts  ;  cum  malo  suo, 
to  his  own  hurt ;  cum  labore,  with  toil ;  cum  dis  volentibus,  with 
favor  of  the  gods ;  cum  decimo,  tenfold  ;  confligere  cum  hoste, 
to  fight  with  the  enemy  ;  cum  armis,  in  arms-,  cum  imperio,  in 
power;  cum  pallio,  in  a  cloak ;  esse  cum  telo,  to  go  armed',  cum 
silentio,  in  silence. 

De,  from,  away,  down  from  :  —  de  domo,  out  of  the  house  ;  de 
sella,  down  from  his  seat ;  unus  de  plebe,  one  of  the  people  (the 
whole,  from  which  a  part  is  taken) ;  emi  domum  de  Crasso,  / 
bought  a  house  of  Crassus  (also  ab)  ;  de  tuo  (de  te),  out  of  your 
property ;  qua  de  re,  'concerning  which  thing;  qua  de  causa,  for 
which  reason;  de  summo  genere,  of  high  birth  ;  de  improviso, 
of  a  sudden  ;  de  industria,  on  purpose  ;  de  integro,  anew;  de 
nocte,  at  night ;  de  tertia  vigilia,  just  at  midnight  (starting  at 
the  third  watch)  ;  de  mense  Dec.  navigare,  Y0  sail  in  December  ; 
de  amicorum  sententia,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  friends  ; 
triumphare  de,  to  triumph  over  ;  de  schola,  of  that  sect. 

Erga,  towards  (usually  of  persons)  :  —  erga  aedes,  opposite 
the  house ;  benevolentia  erga  nos,  kindness  towards  us;  malus 
erga  me,  spiteful  towards  me  (but  more  generally  used  of  a  favor- 
able inclination). 

Ex,  e,  from  (the  midst,  opposed  to  in),  out  of:  —  ex  urbe, 
from  the  city ;  ex  hoc  die,  from  this  day  forth  ;  statua  ex  acre, 
a  statue  of  brass  ;  ex  fuga,  during  flight  ;  ex  consulatu.  right 
after  his  consulship ;  ex  acre  aiieno,  by  reason  of  debt ;  ex 
ejus  sententia,  after  his  opinion;  ex  aequo,  justly;  ex  impro- 
viso, unexpectedly;  ex  tua  re,  to  your  advantage  ;  ex  voluntate 
ejus,  by  his  good  will;  magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree;  ex 
pede  Herculem,  to  know  one  by  a  slight  token  ;  felix  ex  misero, 
bettering  one's  condition  ;  ex  Metello  consule,  beginning  with 
Metellus's  consulship  ;  ex  pedibus  laborare,  to  be  lame  in  the  feet ; 
ex  equo  pugnare,  to  fight  on  horseback. 

Extra,  outside  of  (opposed  to  intra)  : — extra  provinciam, 
beyond  the  province y  extra  causam,  beside  the  case;  extra  te 
unum,  except  you  alone  (not  used  of  time). 

In,  into  (ace.  opp.  to  ex),  in  (abl.  of  time  or  place):  —  in 
urbem  ire,  to  go  to  town  ;  in  mentem  venit,  it  comes  to  mind ;  amor 
in  (erga  or  adversus)  patrem,  love  for.  his  father* ;  in  aram  con- 
fugit,  he  Jled  to  the  altar  (on  the  steps  or  merely  to}',  in  diem, 
to  the  set  day  ;  in  dies,  from  day  to  day  ;  vi.  pedes  in  longitudi- 
nem,  six  feet  long;  in  vi.  partes  fractus,  broken  in  six  parts; 


42:   2.]  PREPOSITIONS.  91 

in  haec  verba  jurare,  to  swear  to  these  words  ;  in  alicujus  verba 
jurare,  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  one  ;  in  silvarn  deponere, 
to  (carry  and)  place  in  the  wood  ;  hunc  in  modum,  in  this  way  ; 
oratio  in  Catilinam,  a  speech  against  Catiline-,  in  universum 
(in  planum),  on  the  whole  ;  in  totum,  wholly;  in  reliquum,_/br 
the  rest ;  in  perpetuum,for  ever ;  in  majus,  too  much  ;  in  pejus, 
for  the  worse;  in  quantum,  so  far  as;  in  magnam  partem,  in 
great  part ;  in  utramque  partem,  on  either  side-,  nos  in  diem 
vivimus  (Tusc.  v.  n),  we  live  from  hand  to  mouth  ;  —  in  urbe  esse, 
to  be  in  the  city ;  in  tempore,  in  season  ;  in  scribendo,  while  -writ- 
ing; est  mihi  in  animo,  I  have  it  in  mind;  in  collo,  on  the  neck  ; 
inarborGiUptketree;  in  ancoris  (Cses.),  at  anchor;  in  altera 
parte,  on  the  other  side  ;  in  sapientibus,  among  the  wise ;  in  hoc 
homine,  in  the  case  of  this  man;  in  bonis  artibus  (Sail.)?  in  good 
behavior. 

Infra,  below  :  —  infra  caelum,  under  the  sky  ;  infra  nos,  beneath 
tts ;  infra  Homerum,  later  than  Homer  ;  infra  iii.  pedes,  less  than 
three  feet. 

Inter,  between  (of  two  limits):  —  inter  flumen  et  montem, 
between  the  river  and  hill  (so  of  time)  ;  inter  noctem,  in  the 
course  of  the  night;  inter  bibendum,  while  drinking;  interest 
inter,  there  is  a  difference  between;  inter  se  amant,  they  love  each 
other  ;  inter  se  loquuntur,  they  talk  together  ;  inter  nos,  between 
ourselves  ;  inter  ceteram  planitiem,  in  a  district  elsewhere  level. 

Intra,  within  (surrounded  on  all  sides)  :  —  intra  parietes,  in- 
side the  house;  (of  time),  intra  v.  dies,  within  jive  days  ;  intra 
legem,  inside  the  law. 

Juxta,  hard  by  (superl.  from  jungo)  : — juxta  murum,  close 
to  the  wall ;  juxta  se,  alike  with  himself;  juxta  deos,  next  the 
gods;  juxta  vicinitatem  (Liv.),  by  reason  of  nearness;  juxta 
quam,  nearly  as ;  juxta  ac  si,  about  as  if. 

Ob,  towards  (in  place)  : — ob  Romam  (early),  towards  Rome; 
ob  oculos,  before  the  eyes;  ob  earn  causam,/0r  that  reason  ;  ob 
rem,  to  the  purpose ;  ob  hoc,  therefore  ;  quam  ob  rem,  wherefore. 

Penes,   with,    in  possession  of  (same  root  as  penitus)  : — est 

penes  me,  he  is  with  me  (at  my  house)  ;  non  est  penes  me,  it  is 
not  in  my  power. 

Per,  through  (in  any  direction)  :  —  per  urbem  ire,  to  go  through 
the  city ;  licet  per  me,  you  may  for  all  me  ;  juro  per  leges,  I  swear 
by  the  laws ;  per  literas,  by  letter;  perjocum,  in  jest;  per  Ion- 
gum  tempus.ybr  a  long  time  ;  per  sotnnum,  during  sleep. 

Pone,  behind  (only  in  space)  :  —  pone  tergum,  behind  the  back. 

Post,  after  (space  or  time)  :  —  post  iii.  dies,  after  three  days  ; 
post  tergum,  behind  the  back ;  post  me,  after  me  (in  time). 

Prae,  in  front:  —  prae  se  ferre,  to  carry  before  him  (exhibit  or 
make  known}':  prae  gaudio  conticuit,  he  was  silent  for  joy  (used 
only  of  an  objection  or  hindrance)  ;  prae  fratre  egens  est,  he  is 

or  compared  to  his  brother. 


ir 


92  PREPOSITIONS.  [42:   2. 

Praeter,  by*  on  the  outside:  —  praeter  spem,  beyond  hope; 
praeter  hoc,  besides  this;  praeter  oculos,  before  the  eyes  ;  nil  prae- 
ter saxa,  nothing  but  stones. 

Pro,  in  front  (facing  the  same  way)  :  —  pro  populo,  in  pres- 
ence of  the  people ;  pro  lege,  in  defence  of  the  law;  argentum 
pro  vino,  money  for  TV  ine  ;  pro  hac  vice,  for  this  once;  pro  con- 
sule,  in  place  of  consul ;  pro  viribus,  considering  his  strength. 

Prope,  near: — prope  (propius,  proxime)  urbem,  or  ab  urbe, 
near  the  city  ;  prope  lucein,  towards  daybreak. 

Propter,  near:  —  propter  te  sedet,  he  sits  next  you  ;  propter 
quos  vivit  (Mil.  22),  through  whose  means  he  lives ;  propter  me- 
tum,  through  fear  ;  propter  frigora  (Caes.),  by  reason  of  cold. 

Secundum,  just  behind,  following  along  (part,  of  sequor)  :  — 
ite  secundum  me  (Plaut.),  go  behind  me;  secundum  litus,  near 
the  shore;  secundum  flumen,  along  the  stream;  secundum  ludos, 
after  the  games  ;  secundum  naturam,  according  to  nature  ;  secun- 
dum causam  nostram,  to  the  advantage  of  our  cause. 

Sine,  apart  from  :  — urbs  sine  regibus,  a  city  without  kings  ; 
non  sine  lacrimis,  with  tears  ;  sine  sanguine,  bloodless. 

Sub,  under :  —  sub  jugum  mittere,  to  send  under  the  yoke  ;  sub 
montem  succedere,  to  come  close  to  the  hill ;  sub  noetem,  towards 
night ;  sub  lucem,  near  daylight ;  sub  haec  dicta,  at  these  words; 

—  sub  terra,  underground ;  sub  Jove,  in  the  open  air ;  sub  monte, 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill;   sub  castris,  near  the  camp  ;    sub   terra  exi- 
mere  (Plaut.),  to  take  from  under  ground ;  subprofectione  (Caes.), 
during  the.  march;   sub   eodem   tempore,  about  that  time;    sub 
oculis  domini,  under  the  master's  eye;    sub  regno,  under  royal 
power ;   sub  lege,  liable  to  the  law. 

Subter  (rarely  with  abl.),  beneath :  —  subter  fastigia  tecti,  under 
the  house- roof ;  subter  prsecordia,  close  to  the  heart;  subter  mu- 
rum,  beneath  the  wall ;  subter  se,  below  itself;  subter  testudine, 
under  the  shed  (of  shields). 

Super,  above,  over: — super  tumulum,  on  the  hillock;  super 
ipsum,  above  him  (at  table)  ;  super  In dos,  beyond  the  Hindoos  ; 
super  cenam  loqui,  to  talk  during  supper ;  super  morbum  fames 
etiam,  besides  sickness  famine  also;  super  omnes,  above  all; 

—  super  cervice  (Hor.),  over  his  h-ead ;   super  arbore  sidunt,  they 
perch  on  a  tree;  nocte  super  media  (Vir.),  about  midnight;  super 
tali  re,  about  such  an  affair ;    satis  superque,  more  than  enough. 

Supra,  on  the  top:  —  supra  terrain,  above  ground;  supra 
caput  (Sail.),  imminent;  supra  Alexandriam,  beyond  Alexan- 
dria;  supra  hanc  memoriam,  before  our  remembrance;  supra 
mille,  above  a  thousand;  supra  morem,  more  than  usual ;  supra 
quod,  besides. 

Tenus,  as  far  as:  — capulo  tenus,  up  to  the  hilt ;  verbo  (nom- 
ine) tenus,  in  name,  nominally  ;  aurium  tenus,  as  far  as  the  ears 
(only);  labrorum  tenus,  along  the  lips.  -.Jlj'J 

Trans,  beyond :  —  trans  mare,  over  sea  ;  trans  flumen,  beyond 
the  river  (rest  or  motion). 


42:  3-    43:    I,  2.]  CONJUNCTIONS.  93 

Ultra,  on  the  further  side  :  —  ultra  eum,  beyond  him  ;  portas 
ultra,  beyond  the  gates;  ultra  pueritiam,  later  than  childhood-, 
ultra  eum  numerum,  more  than  that  number  ;  ultra  fidem,  incred- 
ible ;  ultra  mod  urn,  immoderate. 

Versus,  turned  to  (Eng.  -ward}:  —  Italiam  versus,  towards 
Italy  (usually  with  another  prep.)  ;  modo  ad  urbem  modo  in 
Galliam  versus  (Sail.),  now  towards  the  city,  now  towards 
Gaul. 

3.  Prepositions  are  frequently  compounded  with  verbs, 
retaining  their  original  meaning  as  Adverbs :  as, 

a,  ab,  away  (aufero,  bear  off)  ;  ad,  towards  (affero,  bring]  ; 
ante,  before;  circum,  around  (urbem  circumire  =  ire  circum 
urbem);  con  (cum),  together;  de,  down;  di  or  dis  (insep.), 
apart;  ex,  out,  completely ;  in,  ///,  on,  against ;  inter,  between, 
into,  to  pieces  ;  ob,  towards,  in  the  way  of;  per,  through,  thor- 
oughly ;  re,  red  (insep.),  back,  again ;  se,  sed  (insep.),  apart; 
sub,  under,  near ;  super,  over,  in  place  of.  (For  the  assimila- 
tion of  the  final  consonant,  see  page  4.) 

43.     CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Classification.     Conjunctions    are   more   numerous, 
and  their  use  is  much  more  accurately  distinguished,  in  Latin 
than  in  English.     They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  viz. :  — 

a.  Co-ordinate:  —  these  include  Copulative  (AND),  Disjunc- 
tive   (OK),  Adversative    (BUT),  Causal  (FOR),  Illative  (THERE- 
FORE) . 

b.  Subordinate  :  —  these  are  Conditional    (IF)  ,  —  including 
Comparative  (AS  IF),  Concessive    (THOUGH,   EVEN   IF), — Tem- 
poral   (WHEN),    Causal    (BECAUSE,    SINCE),    Consecutive    (so 
THAT),  Final  (IN  ORDER  THAT). 

2.  The  following  list  includes  most  of  the  conjunctions 
and  conjunctive  phrases  in  common  use. 

NOTE.  —  Some  of  these  have  been  included  in  the  classification  of 
Adverbs,  and  a  list  of  Interjections  has  been  added.  See  also  list 
of  Correlatives,  page  49. 

a.    Copulative  and  Disjunctive. 

et,  -que,  atque  (ac),  and. 

etiam,  quoque,  neque  non  (necnon),  quinetiam,  itidem  (item), 

also. 

cum  .  .  .  turn ;  turn  .  .  .  turn,  both  .  .  .  and;  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 
qua  .  .  .  qua,  on  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand. 
modo  .  .  .  modo,  now  .  .  .  now. 
aut  .  .  .  aut;  vel  .  .  .  vel  (-ve),  either  .  .  .  or. 
sivc  (seu)     .  .  sive,  whether  .  .  .  or. 


94  CONJUNCTIONS. 

et  .  .  .  et;  et  .  .  .  -que  (atque)  ;  -que  .  .  .  et;  -que que  (poet.), 

both  .  .  .  and. 
nee  (neque)  .  .  .  nee  (neque)  ;  neque  .  .  .  nee;  nee.. .  neque  (rare), 

neither  .  .  .  nor. 

et  .  .  .  neque,  both  .  .  .  and  not. 
nee  (neque)  .  .  .  -que,  neither  .  .  .  and. 

b.    Adversative. 

sed,  autem,  verum,  vero,  at,  atqui,  but. 

tamen,  attamen,  sed  tamen,  verumtamen,  but  yet-,  nevertheless. 

nihilominus,  none  the  less. 

at  vero,  enimvero,  but  (for)  in  truth. 

ceterum,  on  the  other  hand,  but. 

c.  Causal. 

nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for. 
quia,  quod,  because. 

quoniam,  quippe,  cum  (quom),  quando,  quandoquidem,  siquidem, 
utpote,  since,  inasmuch  as. 

d.  Illative. 

ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  ideo,  idcirco,  proinde,  therefore. 
propterea  (.  .  .  quod),  for  this  reason  (.  .  .  that}. 
quapropter,    quare,    quamobrem,    quocirca,    unde,    wherefore, 
whence. 

e.    Comparative. 

ut,  uti,  sicut,  velut,  prout,  praeut,  ceu,  as,  like  as. 
tamquam  (tanquam),  quasi,  utsi,  acsi,  as  if. 
quam,  atque  (ac),  as,  than. 

f.    Conditional. 

si,  if;  sin,  but  if;  nisi  (ni),  unless,  if  not ;  quod  si,  but  if. 
modo,  dum,  dummodo,  si  modo,  if  only,  provided. 
dummodo  ne  (dum  ne,  modo  ne),  provided  only  not. 

g.    Concessive. 

etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi,  tamenetsi,  quamquam,  although. 
quamvis,  quantumvis,  quamlibet,  however  much. 
licet,  ut,  cum  (quom),  though. 

NOTE.  —  A  concessive  is  often  followed  by  an  adversative :  as,  tamen- 
etsi .  .  .  tamen   nihilominus,  though  .  .  .  yet  none  the  less. 

h.     Temporal. 

cum  (quom),  cum  primum,  ubi,  ut,  ut  primum,  postquam,  when. 
prius  .  .  .  quam,  ante  .  .  .  quam,  before  (non  ante  .  .  .  quam,  not 

.  .  .  until). 

quando,  simulatque  (simul  ac),  simul,  as  soon  as. 
dum,  usque  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until. 

i.    Final. 

ut  (uti),  quo,  in  order  that. 

ne,  ut  ne,  lest  (in  order  that  not)  ;  neve  (neu),  nor. 

quin  (after  negatives),  quominus,  but  that  (so  as  to  prevent). 


43:   2,  3-]  CONJUNCTIONS.  95 

k.    Interjections. 

O,  en,  ecce,  ehem,  papae,  vah  (of  astonishment). 

io,  evae,  evoe  (of  joy). 

heu,  eheu,  vae,  alas !  (of  sorrow). 

heus,  eho,  ehodum,  ho !  (of  calling). 

eia,  euge  (of  praise). 

proh  (of  attestation)  :  as,  proh  pudor,  shame  ! 

3.  Special  Meaning.  The  following  list  includes  most 
of  the  conjunctions  whose  meaning  6r  use  requires  special 
notice :  — 

a.  Et,  and,    connects   independent  words   or   clauses;   -que 
(enclitic)   combines   closely   into   one    connected   whole ;    atque 
(sometimes  ac  before  consonants)   adds  with  emphasis.     In  the 
second  member,  and  not  is  expressed  by  neque  or  nee. 

Atque  (ac),  as,  is  also  used  after  words  of  comparison  and 
likeness,  as  idem,  the  same,  simul,  as  soon,  aliter,  otherwise. 

b.  Sed  and  verum  or  vero  (more  forcible) ,  but,  are  used  to 
contradict  what  precedes,  —  always  after  negatives  ;  at,  yet,  intro- 
troduces  with  emphasis  a  new  point,  especially  in  argument  (at 
enim  almost  always)   alluding  to  a  supposed  statement  on  the 
other  side ;    autem  is  used  in  the  same  way,  especially  in  tran- 
sitions, but  with  less  force. 

c.  Ant,  07%  excludes  the  alternative  ;  vel  (-ve)  gives  a  choice  ; 
sive  (seu)  is  properly  used  in  disjunctive  conditions,  but  is  also 
used  with  single  words,  —  especially  two  names  for  the  same  thing. 
(But  of  aut  and  vel  the  use  is  not  always  clearly  distinguished.) 

d.  Nam  (namque),  for,  introduces  a  sufficient  reason  ;  enim, 
an   explanatory   circumstance ;    etenim  (for,  you  see ;  for,  you 
know),  something  self-evident,  or  needing  no  proof. 

e*  Ergo,  therefore,  is  used  of  things  proved  logically ;  itaque, 
in  proofs  from  the  nature  of  things ;  igitur,  then  (a  weak  ergo), 
in  passing  from  one  stage  of  the  argument  to  another,  often  merely 
to  resume  ;  idcirco,  for  this  reason,  to  call  attention  to  a  special 
point. 

/•  Quia,  because,  regularly  introduces  a  fact ;  quod,  either  a 
fact  or  a  statement  or  allegation ;  quoniam,  since,  has  reference 
to  motives. 

</•  Quom  (cum),  when,  is  always  a  relative  conjunction,  often 
a  correlative  with  turn ;  quando  is  also  used  as  interrogative  or 
indefinite  (quando?  when?  si  quando,  if  ever). 

h>  Et  .  .  .  et,  means  simply  both  .  .  .  and ;  cum  (less  fre- 
quently turn)  .  .  .  turn  has  also  the  meaning  not  only  .  .  .  but  also, 
emphasizing  the  second  member. 


96  DERIVATION    OF   WORDS.          [43:   3.     44:    I. 

t.  Autem,  enim,  vero,  always  follow  one  or  two  words  in 
their  clause ;  the  same  is  generally  true  of  igitur,  and  often  of 
tamen. 

&•  Conjunctions  are  often  doubled,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or 
to  bind  a  sentence  more  closely  to  the  preceding  :  as,  at  vero, 
itaque  ergo  (namque,  etenim).  The  same  is  true  of  Relatives, 
which  are  equivalent  to  a  conjunction  and  demonstrative  combined : 
as,  qui  ubi  sit  nescio,  for  where  he  is  I  know  not. 


44.     DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

The  ROOT  is  a  primitive  element  of  speech.  All 
roots  are  monosyllabic,  and  have  a  short  vowel. 
STEMS  are  formed  from  roots,  and  are  divided  into 
two  main  groups ;  viz.,  noun-stems  (including  adjec- 
tives) and  verb-stems.  ' 

1.  Noun  Forms*  Derivative  Nominal  forms  include 
(1)  nouns  of  agency,  (2)  names  of  actions,  (3)  active  and 
passive  adjectives. 

NOTE.  —  Examples  of  roots  are  ES,  be;  i,go;  STA,  stand;  CAY, take; 
DUC,  lead;  FAC,  make;  FER,  bear;  RAP,  seize;  SED,  sit;  TEN,  stretch 
(see  also  pp.  72,73). 

a.  Roots  and  Steins.  Roots  may  be  used  as  stems  (1)  without 
change,  as  in  due-is,  nec-is ;  (2)  with  vowel-increase,  as  in  luc-is, 
pac-is;  (3)  with  reduplication,  as  in  furfur,  marmor;  (4)  com- 
pounded, as  in  judic-is  (jus,  dico),  con  jug-is  (con-jugo).  But 
Stems  are  more  commonly  formed  by  means  of  suffixes  added  to 
the  root  (primary),  or  to  a  stem  (secondary),  either  with  or  without 
the  above  changes. 

&.  Primary  Suffixes.  The  simplest  suffixes  are  the  vowels  a 
(in  Latin  o,  a) ,  i,  u.  Other  primary  suffixes  are  ta,  ti,  tu ;  na,  ni, 
nu;  va,  ra,  ya,  ka,  an. 

NOTE.  —  The  vowel-suffixes  a,  i,  u,  are  sometimes  regarded  as  if 
merely  added  to  the  root  to  fit  it  for  inflection ;  but  they  are,  in  fact, 
true  pronominal  roots,  and  must  be  regarded  as  formative  suffixes. 
The  first  is  found  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of  a-  and  o-stems,  as 
Indus,  vagus,  scriba,  toga  (root  TEG)  ;  — i  is  less  common,  and  in  Latin 
has  frequently  disappeared,  especially  in  the  nominative,  as  in  scobs 
(scobis,  root  SCAB)  ;  —  u  is  disguised  in  most  adjectives  by  an  addi- 
tional i,  as  in  suavls  (for  suadvis,  cf.  r/dvc),  tennis  (root  TEN  in  tendo], 
and  remains  alone  only  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension,  as  acns 
(root  AK,  sharp,  in  acer,  acies,  UKVC),  pecu  (root  PAK,  bind,  in  paciscor). 


44:    I.]  DERIVATION   OF    WORDS.  97 

The  signification  of  the  other  primary  suffixes  is  as  follows  :  —  ta 
(in  the  form  to-)  makes  the  regular  perfect  participle,  as  tectus,  tectum; 
sometimes  active,  as  in  potus,  pransus;  and  is  found  in  a  few  not  recog- 
nized as  participles,  as  putus,  altus  (alo) ;  —  ti  forms  abstracts,  rarely 
nouns  of  agency,  as  messis,  vestis,  pars,  mens ;  —  tu  forms  abstracts  (in- 
cluding supines),  sometimes  becoming  concretes,  as  actns,  luctus;  — 
iia,  forming  perfect  participles  in  other  languages,  in  Latin  makes 
adjectives  of  like  meaning,  which  often  become  nouns,  as  magnus 
(=mactus,  root  MAG),  plenus,  regnum ;  —  ni,  nouns  of  agency  and  adjec- 
tives, as  ignis,  segnis ;  —  nu,  rare,  as  in  mamis,  sinus ;  —  ma,  various,  as 
in  animus,  almus,  finnus,  forma ; —  va  (commonly  uo),  of  active  or 
passive  meaning,  as  iltea/uu*,  arvum,  conspicuus,  exiguus,  vacivos  (vacuus) ; 
—  ra  (or  la,  a  passive  participle  termination  in  other  languages), 
usually  passive,  as  in  ager,  integer,  pleri-qne  (  =  plenus  =  -pletus),  sella 
(for  sed-la,  cf.  edpa) ;  —  ya  (gerundives  in  other  languages),  adjectives 
and  abstracts,  including  many  of  the  first  and  fifth  declensions,  as 
eximius,  audacia,  Florentia,  pernicies ;  —  ka,  sometimes  primary,  as  in 
pauci  (cf.  travpoc; ),  locus  (for  stlocus,  cf.  Sk.  sthara,  sthala,  Ger.  Stelle, 
Eng.  stall) ;  —  an  (in,  on),  in  nouns  of  agency  and  abstracts :  as  aspergo, 
compago  (tnis),  gero  (onis). 

The  above,  with  some  compound  suffixes  given  below,  belong  to  the 
original  language,  and  most  of  them  were  not  felt  as  living  formations 
in  the  literary  period.  But  developed  forms  of  these,  with  a  few  other 
primary  suffixes,  were  used  consciously,  —  generally  as  secondary 
suffixes.  The  old  primary  suffixes  thus  used  are  (along  witli  ta  and 
tu,  given  above)  man,  ant,  vant,  tar,  tro,  as.  (Observe  that  it  is 
the  stem,  not  the  nominative,  that  is  formed  by  the  suffix,  although  the 
nominative  is  given  for  convenience  of  reference.) 

c.  Significant  Endings.  The  principal  classes  of  regular 
derivate  nouns  and  adjectives,  as  indicated  by  their  nominative- 
ending,  are  the  following:  — 

1.  Nouns  of  Agency  (active  adjectives  or  appellatives),  end- 
ing in  — 

tor  (lengthened  from  tar,  M.),  trix  (trie-  =  tar  -|-  ic,  F.),  added 
V  to  the  same  form  of  stem  that  precedes  t  of  the  supine  (which 
for  convenience  maybe  called  the  supine-base),  or  to  noun- 
stems  by  analogy  :  as  ductor,  victrix,  viator.  Earlier  forma- 
tions with  tar  are  pater,  mater. 

es  (-itis),  descriptive  nouns,  as  miles,  comes.  t'' 

2.  Names  of  Actions    (passing    into    abstracts,    instruments, 
results)  :  — 

or  (M.),  es  (-is,  F.  —  all  from  as) :  as  timor,  sedes,  decus. 

io  (added  to  pres.  stem),  tio,  tura,  tus  (to  supine  base),  verbal 

abstracts :    as  legio,  actio\  pictura,  cultus  (those  in  tus  more 

concrete).  *#tfh  S~f 

ium  (ya)  from  neuter  abstracts  (with  verb-stems),  as  gaudium; 

I      or   from   nouns   meaning   offices   or   groups:    as   hospitium, 
servitium,  collegium. 
6 


98  DERIVATION    OP   WORDS.  [44:   I. 

men  (man),  mentum  (man  +  ta),   monia,  monium  (man  -(- 

ya),  denoting  act,  means,  or  result:  asflumen,  carmen,  orna- 

mentum,  querimonia,  matrimonium. 
ia,  tia,  tas,  tus,  tudo,  do,  go,  feminine  abstracts,  often  passing 

into   concretes :    as  audacia,  militia,  duritia  (ies),  bonitas, 

semitus,  altitudo,  dulcedo,  lanugo. 
brum,  cruinf  mim,  bulum,  ciilum,  nouns  of  means,  usually  from 

verb-stems  :  as  claustrum,  lavacrum,  vehiculum,  turibulum. 

3.  Adjective  forms,  passing  frequently  into  names  of  per- 
sons or  things :  — 

ulus  (following  a  vowel,  81us ;  following  s  or  r,  culus),  ellus, 
illus,  DIMINUTIVES  (with  endings  for  gender),  forming  nouns 
or  adjectives,  meaning  little  or  tender:  as  puerculus,  puella 
(puerula),  puellula,  asellus  (asinulus),  misellus  (miserulus). 
Rare  diminutive  forms  are  eculeus,  homuncio. 

ades  (F.  as),  ides,  ides  (F.  is,  eis),  PATRONYMICS,  denoting 
parentage,  &c.,  as  ^Eneades,  Priamides,  Priameis. 

anus,  enus,  inus ;  as  (-atis),  ensis ;  ius,  iacus,  acius,  GENTILE 
names,,  denoting  country  —  with  other  rare  forms  —  several 
being  derived  from  the  same  word  :  as  Ores,  Creticus,  Cretceus, 
Cressus,  Cretensis. 

ax,  ulus  (rare),  vus  (uus,  ivus),  denote  tendency  or  inclination, 

*  those  in  ax  being  often  faulty  or  aggressive,  those  in  Ivus 
^^rather  passive  :  as  pugnax,  bibulus,  protervus,  nocuus,  captivus. 

aris,  aliSjlilisTllis,  ulis  (all  from  ra),  with  inus,  orius,  and  several 
of  the  above  gentile  forms,  denote  various  ideas  of  relation  or 
possession.  Several  neuters  of  derivatives  in  ills  signify 
place,  as  ovile;  and  many  of  those  in  alls,  aris  (usually 
with  loss  of  e),  also  become  nouns  (regular  i-stems);  those 
in  inus,  from  names  of  animals,  are  often  used  of  flesh. 

eus,  inus,  aceus,  icius,  denote  material,  &c. :  as  fraxineus. 

osus  (old  onsus,  vant),  olens,  olentus  (root  61  in  adolesco), 
denote  full  of,  or  inclined  to,  as  fluctuosus,  bellicosus ;  so 
idus  (generally  verbal)  with  similar  meaning:  as  cupidus, 
gelidus ;  bundus,  cundus,  participial,  but  denoting  persist- 
ence of  quality :  as  ir a cundus. 

a  tus,  itus,  utus  (from  imaginary  verb-stems),  denote  provided 
with :  as  galeatus,  aurltus,  cornutus. 

ter  (-tris),  timus  (a  superl.  form)  from  noun-stems  :  as  campester, 
maritimus ;  ternus,  from  adverbs  of  time :  as  sempiternus, 
hesternus  (from  heri,  old  hesi,  cf.  yesterday). 

minus,  mnus,  mna  (Gr.  -fievog),  participles,  but  no  longer  sig- 
nificant as  such:  as  terminus,  alumnus,  autumnus,  lamina, 
cerumna,  femina. 

ndus,  the  gerund-ending,  forms  a  few  words  of  active  meaning,  as 
secundus,  rotundus  (cf.  volvendis  annis). 


44:  2.]  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS.  99 

2.  Derivation  of  Verbs.  Verbs  of  the  third  conju- 
gation, with  irregular  verbs  and  vowel-stems  da,  sta,  are 
primitive.  All  others  are  either  causative  or  denominative 
(formed  from  nouns). 

NOTE.  —  The  consciousness  of  roots  was  lost  in  Latin,  so  that  in 
forming  the  parts  of  verbs  only  stems  are  dealt  with.  Thus  moneo, 
monui  (not  menui),  from  root  men,  as  in  mens;  ccedo,  cecldi  (not  cecldi), 
from  root  (cad,  as  in  cddo).  For  modifications  of  the  root  in  verb-stems, 
see  §§  28,  30.  The  derivative  suffix  in  the  regular  conjugations  is 
original  ya  added  either  to  the  root,  the  present  stem  in  a,  or  the 
noun-stem. 

a.    The  following  are  the  regular  conjtigational  forms  :  — 

1.  Verbs  of  the   first   conjugation  (generally  active)  may  be 
formed  from  almost  any  noun  or  adjective  of  the  first  or  second 
declension,  by  changing  the  stem-vowel  into  the  characteristic  a. 
A  few  add  this  vowel  to  the  stem,  as  vigilare,  exsulare. 

2.  A  few  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  are  formed  in  like 
manner  from  noun-stems ;  but  most  add  the  characteristic  e  to  the 
root,  and  are  intransitive  or  neuter  in  their  meaning. 

3.  A  few  u-stems  simply  add  the  characteristic  of  the  third 
conjugation,  becoming  either  active  or  intransitive,  as  acuo,  fluo. 

4.  Most  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation  add  the  characteristic  i 
to  the  root,  as  scio,  salio;  many  are  formed  from  i- stems,  as 
sitio,  finio,  polio  (see  §  34). 

&.   The  following  are  regular  derivative  suffixes  :  — 

sco  or  isco  (§  36,  i)  inchoative,  denoting  the  "beginning  of  an 
action ;  they  imply  a  primitive  verb-stem,  which  is  sometimes 
found  only  in  the  perfect  and  supine  stems. 

asso,  esso,  denote  attempt  to  do  a  thing ;  they  are  of  the  third 
conjugation  in  the  present  stem,  and  of  the  fourth  in  the  per- 
fect and  supine. 

NOTE.  —  These  are  probably  denominative,  from  nouns  originally  in 
as  (Latin  es  or  us),  but  seem  as  if  formed  upon  verb-roots. 

to,  ito  (first  conjugation)  denote  frequent  action,  being  added  to 
the  actual  supine,  or  to  another  form  of  it,  with  a  connecting 
vowel  i,  changing  u  to  the  characteristic  a  of  the  first  con- 
jugation. 

illo  (first  conjugation)  denotes  feeble  or  trifling  action  like  that  of 
some  simpler  verb,  but  is  formed  from  some  real  or  supposed 
diminutive  noun. 

urio  (fourth  conjugation),  added  to  the  supine-base,  denotes  desire 
to  do  the  act  expressed  by  some  simple  verb ;  but  is  formed 
from  some  noun  of  agency  in  tor  (sor).  Viso  is  a  regular 
inherited  desiderative  of  an  earlier  formation. 


100  DERIVATION    OF    WORDS.  [44:   3- 

3.  Compound  Words.  In  compound  words,  either 
(1)  the  second  part  is  merely  added  to  the  first ;  (2)  the  first 
part  modifies  the  second  as  an  adjective ;  (3)  the  first  part  is 
governed  by  the  second  as  a  verb ;  or  (4)  a  verb  is  modified 
by  a  preposition  or  adverb  prefixed.  In  all,  only  the  second 
part  receives  inflection. 

NOTE.  —  The  Indo-European  family  had  great  power  of  forming 
compounds  with  mere  stems.  This  power  the  Latin  for  the  most  part 
lost,  as  has  English  compared  with  German.  Many  compounds 
attempted  by  poets  failed  to  become  established  in  the  language ;  but 
there  remain  many  traces  of  the  old  usage. 

The  most  usual  compounds  may  be  classed  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Meanings  added :    as  suovetaurilia,  undecim. 

b.  Noun  with  modifying  adjective  :  as  latifundium,  pceninsula, 
tergeminus. 

c.  Noun  and  Verb,  as  armiger,  cornicen,  manifestus,  carnufex, 
mantele. 

d.  Compound  adjectives,  in  which  the  last  word  is  a  noun,  the  . 
compound  acquiring  the  meaning  of  possessed  of  the  property  de 
noted,  as  alipe*,  magnanimus,  concors,  anceps  (having  a  head 
both  ends),  obvius,  multiformis,  multiplex. 

e.  Compounds  of  facio,  with  an  actual  or  formerly  existing 
verbal  stem  in  e.     These  are  causative  in  force,  as  consuefacio, 
calefacto. 

/.  Adverbs  (of  manner)  and  Verb,  which  have  grown  together : 
as  benedico,  satayo. 

fj.  Verbs  with  Prepositions,  usually  having  their  original  ad 
verbial  sense:  as,  ab,  away]  ex,  out.  In  those  with  circmr 
praeter,  trans,  and  sometimes  ad  and  per,  the  compound  retain 
the  force  of  the  preposition. 

h.  Verbs  with  the  following  inseparable  Particles,  which  no 
longer  appear  as  prepositions  in  Latin :  amb  (am,  an),  around ; 
dis,  di,  asunder  (in  two)  ;  por,  forward ;  red,  re,  back ;  sed,  se 
apart. 


PART    SECOND. 
USE  OF  WORDS  (SYNTAX). 


45.     DEFINITIONS. 

1.  Sentence*  A  SENTENCE  is  a  form  of  words  which 
contains   either   a   Statement,  a   Question,  an  Exclamation, 
or  a  Command. 

a.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Statement  is  called  a  DECLAR- 
ATORY SENTENCE  :  as,  puer  venit,  the  boy  came. 

&,  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Question  is  called  an  INTER- 
ROGATIVE SENTENCE  :  as,  venitne  puer,  did  the  boy  come  ? 

c.  A   sentence  in  the  form  of  an  Exclamation  is  called  an 
EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCE:  as,  quam  celeriter  venit!   how  fast 
he  came! 

d.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Command  is  called  an  IMPERA- 
TIVE SENTENCE  :  as,  veni,  puer,  ad  me,  come  to  me,  boy. 

2.  Subject  and  Predicate.    The  Subject  of  a  sentence 
is  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of;   the  Predicate  is  that  which 
is  stated  of  the  Subject. 

a.  The  Predicate  may  be  either  a  neuter  verb,  a  noun  or 
adjective  with  the  Copula  (esse,  fieri,  &c.),  or  a  Transitive  verb 
with  its  Object. 

b.  The  verb  esse,  to  be,  when  it  connects  an  attribute  with 
its  subject,  is  called  the  Copula ;  otherwise,  it  is  cajled  the  Sub- 
stantive Verb. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  brave  men, 
sunt  is  a  substantive  verb;  in  viri  sunt  fortes,  the  men  are 
brave,  it  is  a  copula. 

c.  The  Object  of  a  verb  is  that  on  which  its  action  is  exerted : 
thus  in  the  sentence  pater  vocat  filium,  the  father  calls  his  son, 
pater  is  subject,  and  filium  object,  of  vocat. 

d.  One  or  more  words,  essential  to  the  grammatical  complete- 
ness of  a  sentence,  may  be  unexpressed :  this  is  called  ELLIPSIS, 
and  the  sentence  is  called  an  elliptical  sentence. 


102  DEFINITIONS.  [45:3,4,5. 

3.  Modification.   The  Subject  or  Predicate  of  a  sentence 
may  be  modified  by  single  words,  or  by  a  phrase  or  clause. 
The  modifying  word  may  itself  be  modified  in  the  same  way. 

a,  A  single  modifying  word  is  generally  either  an  Adjective, 
an  Adverb,  an  Appositive  (§  46),  or  the  oblique  case  of  a  Noun. 
Thus  in  the  sentence  puer  formosus  venit,  a  handsome  boy 
came,  the  adjective  formosus  modifies  the  subject  puer ;  in  the 
sentence  celeriter  venit,  he  came  quickly,  the  adverb  celeriter 
modifies  the  predicate  venit. 

&.  The  modifying  word  is  in  some  cases  said  to  limit  the  word 
to  which  it  belongs :  thus  in  the  sentence  video  pueri  patrem, 
I  see  the  boy's  father,  the  genitive  pueri  limits  patrem. 

4.  Phrase.   A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  without  sub- 
ject or  predicate  of  its    own,  which   may  be   used   as   an 
Adjective  or  Adverb. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  puer  erat  eximiae  formae,  he  was  a 
boy  of  remarkable  beauty,  the  words  eximiae  formae  are  used 
for  the  adjective  formosus  (or  formosissimus),  and  are  called 
an  ADJECTIVE  PHRASE  ;  in  the  sentence  magna  celeritate 
venit,  he  came  with  great  speed,  the  words  magna  celeritate  are 
used  for  the  adverb  celeriter  (or  celerrime) ,  and  are  called  an 
ADVERBIAL  PHRASE. 

5.  Clause.   A  Clause  is  a  group  of  words  forming  part 
of  a  sentence,  and  having  a  subject  and  predicate  of  its  own. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  puer  qui  heri  venit  formosus  erat, 
the  boy  who  came  yesterday  was  handsome,  the  words  qui  heri 
venit  are  a  RELATIVE  CLAUSE;  in  the  sentence  puer  si  eras 
veniat  acceptus  sit,  if  the  boy  should  come  to-morrow  he  would 
be  welcome,  the  words  si  eras  veniat,  are  a  CONDITIONAL 
CLAUSE. 

a.  When  a  Clause  is  used  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  a  verb, 
it  is  called  a  Substantive  Clause  (see  §  70). 

b.  When  a  clause  is  used  to  modify  the  subject  or  predicate  of 
a    sentence,   it    is    called   a   Subordinate    Clause.      Subordinate 
Clauses    are    Conditional,    Temporal,    Causal,    Consecutive,   and 
Final,  like  the  conjunctions  which  introduce  them  (§  43,  I,  b). 

c.  When  two  or  more  clauses  in  the  same  sentence  are  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  they  are  said  to  be  Coordinate. 

d.  Any  clause  introduced  by  a  Relative  is  called  a  Relative 
Clause ;  when  used  simply  by  way  of  explanation,  and  not  other- 
wise connected  with  the  form  of  the  sentence,  it  is   called  an 
Intermediate  Clause  (§  66). 


45;  46.]        SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE:  NOUNS.  103 

e.  A  clause  expressing  the  purpose  of  an  action  is  called  a 
Final  Clause:  one  expressing  its  result  is  called  a  Consecutive 
Clause  (see  §§'  64,  65). 

NOTE.  —  In  English,  a  Consecutive  clause  is  introduced  by  the 
phrase  so  that ;  a  Final  clause  by  the  phrase  in  order  that. 

f.  A  clause  containing  a  condition,  introduced  by  IF  or  some 
equivalent  (§  59),  is  called   a  Conditional  Clause.     A  sentence 
modified  by  a  conditional  clause  is  called  a  Conditional  Sentence. 

NOTE,  -s-  Observe  that  these  classes  are  not  exclusive,  but  that  a 
single  clause  may  belong  to  several  of  them  at  once.  Thus  a  relative 
clause  may  be  subordinate,  conditional,  or  intermediate ;  and  two 
subordinate  clauses  may  be  coordinate  with  each  other. 

6.  Connectives.    Sentences  or  coordinate  clauses  are 
regularly  connected  by  means   of    Conjunctions;    but    fre- 
quently in  Latin  —  very  rarely  in  English  —  sentences  are 
connected  by  Relatives. 

In  this  case,  the  relative  is  often  best  translated  in  English  by 
a  conjunction  with  a  demonstrative :  as,  quo  cum  venisset,  and 
when  he  had  come  there;  quae  cum  ita  siut,  but  since  these 
things  are  so  (§  43,  3,  k). 

. 

7.  Agreement.  A  word  is  said  to  AGREE  with  another 

when  it  is  required  to  be  in  the  same  gender,  number,  case,  or 
person. 

When  a  word  takes  the  gender  or  number  of  some  other  word 
implied  in  that  with  which  it  should  agree,  this  use  is  called 
SYNESIS,  or  constructio  ad  sensum. 

§.  Government.  A  word  is  said  to  GOVERN  another, 
when  it  requires  the  latter  to  be  in  a  particular  case. 

I.    Subject  and  Predicate. 

46.    OP  NOUNS. 

A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  meaning  the 
same  thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case :   as, 
Servius  rex,  Servius  the  king. 
ad  urbem  Solos,  to  the  city  Soli. 
spes  nostra  Cicero,  Cicero  our  hope. 
homo  nata  fuerat,  she  had  been  born  human* 


104  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.        [46:  I,  2. 

1.  When  the  noun  thus  used  is  in  the  same  part  of  the 
sentence  (subject  or  predicate)  it  is  called  an  appositive,  and 
the  use  is  called  apposition. 

2.  When  the  noun  is  used  to  form  a  predicate  with  esse 
or  a  verb  of  similar  meaning,  it  is  called  a  predicate-nom- 
inative (or  accusative  as  the  case  may  be). 

externus  timer,  maximum  concordise  vinculum,  jungebat  ani- 
mos  (Liv.  ii.  39),  fear  of  the  foreigner,  the  chief  bond  of  har- 
mony, united  hearts.  [Here  both  nouns  belong  to  the  subject] 

quattuor  hie,  primum  omen,  equos  vidi  (^En.  iii.  537),  I saw 
here  four  horses,  the  first  omen.  [Here  both  nouns  are  in  the 
predicate] 

Ancum  Marcium  regem  populus  creavit  (Liv.  i.  32),  the  people 
made  Ancus  Marcius  king.  [Here  regem  is  called  the  comple- 
mentary accusative.] 

consules  creantur  Caesar  et  Servilius  (B.  C.  iii.  i),  Ccesar  and 
Servilius  are  made  consuls.  [Here  consules  is  predicate-nomi- 
native after  creantur.] 

litteras  Grsecas  senex  didici  (Cat.  M.  8),  I  learned  Greek  when 
an  old  man.  [Here  senex  is  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of 
didici,  expressing  the  time,  condition,  &c.,  of  the  act.] 

Gnseus  et  Publius  Scipiones,  the  Scipios,  Cneius  and  Publius* 
[Here  the  appositive  is  plural,  as  referring  to  more  than  one 
subject.] 

gloria  virtutem  tanquam  umbra  sequitur  (Tusc.  i.  45).  [Here 
the  appositive  is  introduced  by  way  of  comparison] 

a.  The  appositive  will  agree  in  gender  when  it  can  ;  sometimes 
also  in  number:  as, 

Aristseus,  olivae  inventor  (N.  D.  iii.  18),  Aristceus,  discoverer  of 

the  olive. 
olese  Minerva  inventrix  (G.  i.  18),  Minerva,  inventress  of  the 

olive.  ^ 

quia   sequuntur  naturam,  optimam  ducem  (Lsel.  19),  because 

they  follow  nature,  the  best  guide. 
omnium    doctrinarum    inventrices    Athenas    (De   Or.    i.   4), 

Athens,  discoverer  of  all  learning. 

b.  A  common  noun  in  apposition  with  a  locative  is  put  in  the 
Ablative,  with  or  without  the  preposition  in :  as, 

Antiochise,  celebri  quondam  urbe  (Arch.  3),  at  A ntioch,  once 

a  famous  city. 
Albie  constiterunt  in  urbe  munita  (Phil.  iv.  2),  they  halted  at 

Alba,  a  fortified  town. 


47:    I,  2.]  ADJECTIVES.  105 

c.  The  genitive  is  used  in  apposition  with  possessives,  taking 
the  gender  and  number  of  the  implied  subject :  as, 

in  nostro  omnium  fletu  (Mil.  34),  amid  the  tears  of  us  all. 
ex  Anniana  Milonis  domo   (Att.  iv.  3),  out  of  Annius  Mile's 
house. 

NOTE.  —  The  proper  appositive  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Genitive. 
See  §  50,  i,  /. 

47.     OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and 
case.  This  rule  applies  also  to  adjective  pronouns  and 
participles. 

vir  fortis,  a  brave  man. 

cum  ducentis  militibus,  with  200  men. 

consularia  munera,  the  duties  of  consul. 

hac  lege,  by  this  law. 

uno  interfecto,  one  being  slain. 

REMARK. — The  adjective  may  be  either  attributive  or  predi- 
cate. An  attributive  adjective  simply  qualifies  the  noun  without 
the  intervention  of  a  verb ;  a  predicate  adjective  is  connected 
with  its  noun  by  esse,  or  a  verb  of  similar  meaning,  expressed  or 
implied. 

An  adjective  may  also  be  used  in  apposition  like  a  noun :  as, 

Hortensium   vivum   amavi    (Off.  iii.   18),   T  loved  Hortensius 
'when  living. 

1.  With  two  or  more  nouns  the  adjective  is  plural  (also, 
rarely,  when  they  are  connected  with  cum)  :  as, 

Nisus  et  Euryalus  primi  (^En.  v.  394),  Nisus  and Euryalus  first. 
Juba  cum  Labieno  capti  (B.  Afr.  52),  Juba  a?id  Labienus  'were 
taken. 

2.  When  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  an  attributive 
adjective  agrees  with  the  nearest :  as, 

multae  opera?  ac  laboris,  of  imich  trouble  and  toil. 
vita  moresque  mei,  my  life  and  character. 

si   res,  si   vir,   si   tempus  ullum  dignum  fuit  (Mil.  7),  if  any 
thing,  if  any  man,  if  any  time,  -was  Jit. 

a*  A  predicate  adjective  may  follow  the  same  rule  if  the  sub- 
*  jects  form  one  connected  idea :  as, 

factus  est  strepitus  et  admurmuratio  (Verr.  i.  15),  a  noise  of 
assent  'was  made. 


106  SUBJECT,  AND  PREDICATE.        [47:  2,  3. 

6.  Generally,  a  predicate  adjective  will  be  masculine,  if  nouns 
of  different  genders  mean  living  beings ;  neuter,  if  things  without 
life:  as, 

uxor  deinde  ac  liberi  amplexi  (Liv.  ii.  40),  then  his  'wife  and 

children  embraced  him. 
labor  (M.)  voluptasque  (F.)  societate  quadam  inter  se  naturali 

sunt  juncta   (N.)    (id.  v.  4),    labor  and  delight   are    bound 

together  by  a  certain  natural  alliance. 

€•  Abstract  nouns  of  the  same  gender  may  have  a  neuter  adjec- 
tive :  as, 

stultitia  et  temeritas  et  injustitia  . . .  sunt  fugienda  (Fin.  iii.  n), 

folly,  rashness,  and  injustice  must  be  shunned. 
pax  et  concordia  jactata  sunt  (Tac.  Hist.  ii.  20),  peace  and 

harmony  -were  talked  of. 

d.  A  masculine  or  femine  adjective  may  belong  (by  Synesis)  to 
a  noun  of  different  gender  or  number,  when  the  existence  of  per- 
sons is  implied :  as, 

duo  milia  relicti  (Liv.  xxxvii.  39),  two  thousand  were  left. 

pars  certare  parati  (^En.  v.  108),  a  part  ready  to  contend. 

magna  pars  raptae  (Liv.  i.  9),  a  large  part  [of  the  women] 
were  seized. 

colonise  aliquot  deductse,  Prisci  Latini  appellati  (id.  i.  3),  sev- 
eral colonies  -were  led  out  [of  men]  called  Old  Latins. 

e.  An  adjective  pronoun  agrees  in  gender  with  a  word  in  ap- 
position rather  than  with  its  antecedent :  as,   /,        /        /^.     rf  / 

>oW  9£4lJ,  fat  ta&0* 
rerum  caput  hoc  erat,  hie  fons  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  17),  this  was  the 

head  of  things,  this  the  source. 

earn  sapientiam  interpretantur  quam  adhuc  mortalis  nemo  est 
consecutus  [for  id  ...  quod]  (Lael.  5),  they  explain  that 
[thing]  to  be  wisdom  which  no  man  ever  yet  attained. 

f.  Occasionally,  an  adjective  takes  the  gender  of  a  partitive 
genitive :  as, 

velocissimum  animalium  delphinus  est  (Plin.),  the  dolphin  is 
the  swiftest  of  creatures. 

3.   Adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns,  the  masculine  to 
denote  men,  and  the  feminine  women :  as, 
omnes,  all  men,  or  everybody ;  majores,  ancestors;  veteres,  the 
ancients ;  barbari,  barbarians ;   amicus,  a  friend. 

instinctu  purpuratorum  (Curt.  iii.  9),  at  the  instigation  of  the 

courtiers  [those  clad  in  purple], 
iniquus  noster  (Plane.  2.),  our  foe. 
didicit  jam  dives  avarus  laudare  disertos  (Juv.  vii.  30),  the  rich 

miser  has  now  learned  to  flatter  the  eloquent. 


47:3,4-]  ADJECTIVES.  107 

NOTE.  —  The  singular  of  adjectives  in  this  use  is  more  rare;  the 
plural  is  very  frequent,  and  may  be  used  of  any  adjective  or  participle, 
to  denote  those  in  general  described  by  it. 

d.    This  is  especially  frequent  with  possessives  :  as, 

nostri,  our  countrymen,  or  men  of  our  party. 

Sullani,  the  veterans  of  Sulla's  army. 

suos  continebat  (B.  C.  i.  15),  he  held  his  men  in  check. 

&•  The  demonstratives  is,  ille,  &c.,  used  in  this  way,  have 
nearly  the  force  of  personal  pronouns.  They  are  often  thus  used 
in  apposition  with  a  noun,  or  a  clause :  as, 

vincula,  eaque  sempiterna   (Cat.  iv.  4),  chains,  and  that  for 

ever. 
exspectabam  tuas  litteras,  idque  cum  multis  (Fam.  x.  14),  /, 

with  many  others,  am   expecting  your  letter. 

c*  On  the  other  hand,  a  noun  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective, 
and  may  be  qualified  by  an  adverb  (compare  §  16,  3,  e) :  as, 

victor  exercitus,  the  victorious  army. 

servum  pecus,  a  servile  troop. 

admodum  puer,  quite  a  boy. 

magis  vir,  more  of  a  man. 

fautor  inepte  (Hor.),  a  stupid  admirer. 

4.    A  neuter  adjective  may  be  used  as  a  noun  — 

a.  In  the  singular,  to  denote  either  a  single  object  or  an 
abstract  quality :  as, 

rapto  vivere,  to  live  by  plunder. 

in  arido,  on  dry  ground. 

honestum,  an  honorable  act,  or  honor  (as  a  quality). 

&.  In  the  plural,  to  signify  objects  in  general  having  the  quality 
denoted,  and  hence  the  abstract  idea :  as, 

honesta,  honorable  deeds  (in  general),  or  honor  (in  the  ab- 
stract). 

omnium  ignarus,  ignorant  of  all. 
justis  solutis,  the  due  rites  being  paid. 

€•  In  apposition,  or  as  predicate,  to  a  noun  of  different  gen- 
der: as, 

turpitudo  pejus  est  quam  dolor  (Tusc.  ii.  13),  disgrace  is  worse 

than  pain. 
labor  bonum  non  est  (Sen.  Ep.  31),  toil  is  no  good  thing. 

d.  In  agreement  with  an  infinitive  or  a  substantive  clause :  as, 

aliud  est  errare  Caesarem  nolle,  aliud  nolle  misereri  (Lig.  5), 
it  is  one  tiring  to  be  unwilling  that  Ccesar  should  err,  another 
to  be  unwilling  that  he  should  pity. 


108  SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE.  [47:    5,  6,  7. 

REMARK.  —  The  neuter  of  an  adjective  is  ordinarily  used  as  a 
noun  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  :  as, 

omnia,  all  things  (everything} ;  but,  omnium  rerum,  of  all 
things  (omnium  is  usually  of  all  persons}  ;  —  loquitur  de 
omnibus  rebus,  he  talks  about  everything  (de  omnibus, 
about  everybody}. 

5.  Adjectives  denoting  source  or  possession  may  be  used 
for  the  genitive :  as, 

Pompeiana  acies,  Pompey's  line. 

video  herilem  filium  (Ter.),  1  spy  master's  son. 

ses  alienum,  another's  money,  i.e.  DEBT. 

a.  Possessives  are  thus  regularly  used  for  the  genitive  of  the 
personal  pronouns :  as, 

domus  mea,  my  house  ;   nostra  patria,  our  country. 

b.  A  possessive  in  any  case  may  have  a  genitive  in  apposition 
(§  46,  c) :  as, 

mea  solius  causa,  for  my  sake. 

nostra  omnium  patria,  the  country  of  us  all. 

€•  An  adjective  is  occasionally  thus  used  for  the  objective  geni- 
tive (§  50,  3,  b) :  as, 

metus  hostilis  (Jug.  41),  fear  of  the  enemy. 

feminea  in  pcena  (Virg.),  in  punishing  a  -woman. 

periculo  invidise  meae  (Cat.  ii.  2),  at  the  risk  of  odium  against 

me. 
studiosus  csedis  ferinse   (Ov.  M.  vii.  675),  eager  to  slaughter 

game. 

6.  An  adjective,  with  the  subject  or  object,  is  often  used 
to  qualify  the  act,  having  the  force  of  an  adverb :  as, 

primus  venit,  he  came  first  (-was  the  first  to  come}. 
nullus  dubito,  I  no  way  doubt. 
Iseti  audi£re,  they  -were  glad  to  hear. 

patre  invito  discessit,  he  departed  against  his  father's  'wishes. 
erat  Romse  frequens  (Rose.  Am.  6),  he  was  often  at  .Rome. 
serus  in  coelum  redeas  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2),  mafst  thou  return  late 
to  heaven. 

7.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared,  both 
adjectives  (or  adverbs)  are  in  the  comparative :  as, 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat  (Liv.  xxvii.  48),  the  line  was  longer 
than  it  was  broad  (or,  rather  long  than  broad). 


47;  48.]  ADJECTIVES:  RELATIVES.  109 

a.   But  not  where  magis  is  used :  as, 

clari  magis  quam  honesti  (Jug.  8),  more  renowned  than  honor- 
able. 

6.   A  comparative  with  a  positive,  or  even  two  positives,  may 
be  thus  connected  by  quam  (a  rare  and  less  elegant  use) :  as, 

vehementius  quam  caute  (Agric.  4),  with  more  fury  than  good 

heed. 
claris  majoribus  quam  vetustis  (Ann.  iv.  61),   of  a  family  more 

famous  than  old. 

8.  Superlatives  denoting  order  and  succession  often  desig- 
nate not  what  object ,  but  what  part  of  it,  is  meant :  as, 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  hill. 

in  ultima  plataea,  at  the  end  of  the  avenue.     So, 

prior  actio,  the  earlier  part  of  an  action. 

Also,  medius,  midst;  ceterus,  other;  reliquus,  remaining:  as, 

reliqui  captivi,  the  rest  of  the  prisoners. 

in  colle  medio  (B.  G.  i.  24),  on  the  middle  of  the  hill. 

inter  ceteram  planitiem  (Jug.  92),  in  a  region  elsewhere  level. 

Similarly,   sera  uocte,   late  at  night;    nos   omnes,   all   of  us 
(§  50,  2). 

9.  The  expressions  alter  . .  .  alter,  alius  . . .  alms  (as 
also  the  adverbs . derived  from  them),  may  be  used  recipro- 
cally;  or  may  imply  a  change  of  predicate  as  well  as  of 
subject:  as, 

hi  fratres  alter  alterum  amant,  these  brothers  love  each  other. 
alius  aliud  petit,  one  man  seeks  one  thing,  one  another. 
alius  alia  ex  navi,  out  of  different  ships. 

alius  alia  vi£  civitatem  auxerunt  (Liv.  i.  21),  they  enlarged  the 
State  each  in  his  own  way. 

For  the  use  of  Adjectives  as  Adverbs,  see  §  16,  3,  f. 
For  the  ablative   used    adverbially   with    Comparatives,   see 
§  54,  6,  e. 

48.     OF  RELATIVES. 

A  Relative  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in  gender  and 
number ;  but  its  case  depends  on  the  construction  of 
the  clause  in  which  it  stands :  as, 

puer  qui  venit,  the  boy  who  came ;  liber  quern  legis,  the  book 
you  are  reading ;  via  qua  ambulat,  the  way  he  walks  in. 


110  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.      [48:  I,  2,  3. 

NOTE.  —  A  Relative  is  properly  an  adjective  pronoun,  of  which  the 
proper  noun  (the  Antecedent)  is  usually  omitted.  The  full  construc- 
tion would  require  a  corresponding  demonstrative,  to  which  the  relative 
refers.  Hence,  relatives  serve  two  uses  :  —  1.  As  Nouns  in  their  own 
clause  ;  2.  As  Connectives,  and  are  thus  often  equivalent  to  a  demon- 
strative and  conjunction  combined  (see  §  69).  The  connective  force  is 
not  original,  but  is  developed  from  a  demonstrative  or  indefinite 
meaning;  the  relative  and  the  antecedent  clause  being  originally 
co-ordinate. 

1  .  A  Verb  having  a  relative  as  its  subject  takes  the  person 
of  the  expressed  or  implied  antecedent  :  as, 

adsum  qui  feci  (^En.  ix.  427),  here  am  I  -who  did  it. 

&.  A  relative  generally  agrees  in  gender  with  a  noun 
(appositive)  in  its  own  clause,  rather  than  with  an  antecedent 
of  different  gender  :  as, 

mare  etiam  quern  Neptunum  esse  dicebas  (N.  D.  iii.  20),  the 
sea,  toO)  which  y-ou  said  was 


a.  A  relative  may  (rarely)  by  Attraction  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  case:  as, 

si  aliquid  agas  eorum  quorum  consu£sti  (Fam.  v.  14),  if  you  do 
something  of  what  you  are  used  to. 

&•  A  relative  may  agree  in  gender  and  number  with  an  implied 
antecedent:  as, 

quartum  genus  ...  qui  premuntur  (Cat.  ii.  10),  a  fourth  class, 

that  are  sinking. 
unus  ex  eo  numero  qui  parati  erant  (Jug.  35),  one  of  the  number 

[of  those]  who  were  ready. 
conjurav£re  pauci.  .  .  de  qua  [conjuratione]  dicam  (Sail.  C.  18), 

a  few  have  conspired  .  .  .of  which  [conspiracy]  I  will  speak. 

3.  The  antecedent  noun  sometimes  appears  in  both  clauses  ; 
usually  only  in  the  one  that  precedes  ;  sometimes  it  is  wholly 
omitted  :  thus  — 

a.  The  noun  may  be  repeated  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

loci  natura  erat  haec  quern  locum  nostri  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.  18), 
the  nature  of  the  ground  which  our  men  had  chosen  was  this. 

b.  The  noun  may  appear  only  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

quas  res  in  consulatu  nostro  gessimus  attigit  hie  versibus 
(Arch,  n),  he  has  touched  in  verse  the  things  which  we  did 
in  our  consulship. 

urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est  (^En.  i.  573),  yours  is  the  city 
which  I  found. 


48:  3,  4>  5-J  RELATIVES.  Ill 

In  such  cases  the  demonstrative  is  or  hie  usually  stands  in  the 
antecedent  clause :  as, 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  populo  Romano  intulerat,  ea 
princeps  poenas  persolvit  (B.  G.  i.  12),  that  part  of  the  State 
which  had  brought  disaster  on  the  Roman  people  was  the  first 
to  pay  the  penalty. 

REMARK.  —  In  a  sentence  of  this  class,  the  relative  clause  in 
Latin  usually  stands  first ;  but,  in  translating,  the  noun  should  be 
transferred,  in  its  proper  case,  to  the  antecedent  clause,  as  in  the 
example  just  quoted. 

c.   The  antecedent  noun  may  be  omitted :  as, 

qui  decimae  legionis  aquilam  ferebat  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  [the  man] 

who  bore  the  eagle  of  the  tenth  legion. 
qui  cognoscerent  rnisit  (id.  i.  21),  he  sent  men  to  reconnoitre. 

d*  A  predicate  adjective  (especially  a  superlative)  agreeing 
with  the  antecedent  may  stand  in  the  relative  clause :  as, 

vasa  ea  quse  pulcherrima  apud  eum  viderat  (Verr.  iv.  27),  those 
most  beautiful  vessels  which  he  had  seen  at  his  house. 

e.  The  phrase  id  quod  or  quae  res  is  used  (instead  of  quod 
alone) :  to  relate  to  an  idea  or  group  of  words  before  expressed  as, 

[obtrectatum  est]  Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio?  an  utrique  — 
id  quod  est  verius?  (Manil.  19),  an  affront  is  offered  shall  I 
say  to  Gabinius  or  Pompey  f  or  —  which  is  truer  —  to  both  ? 

4.  A  relative  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or 
sentence,  where  in  English  a  demonstrative  must  be  used :  as, 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so. 

quorum  quod  simile  factum?  (Cat.  iv.  8),  what  ever  happened 

like  this? 
qui  illius  in  te  amor  fuit  (Fam.  iv.  5),  such  was  his  love  for  you. 

5.  A  Relative  Adverb  is  often  equivalent  to  the  relative 
pronoun  with  a  preposition :  as, 

quo  (=  ad  quern),  to  whom ;  unde  (=  a  quo),  from  whom,  &c. :  as, 

apud  eos  quo  se  contulit  (Verr.  iv.  18),  among  those  to  whom  he 

resorted. 
qui  eum  necasset  unde  ipse  natus  esset  (Rose.  Am.  26),  one 

who  should  have  slain  his  own  father. 

A  similar  use  is  found  with  the  demonstratives  eo,  inde,  &c :  as, 

eo  imponit  vasa  (Jug.  75),  upon  them  [the  beasts]  he  puts  the 
baggage.  &X' 


112  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.          [49:  I. 


49,     VERBS. 

A  Verb  agrees  with  its  subject-nominative  in  num- 
ber and  person :   as, 
ego  statuo,  I  resolve ;  oratio  est  habita,  the  plea  was  spoken. 

REMARK. — The  verb  in  the  periphrastic  forms  sometimes  agrees 
in  gender  and  number  with  the  predicate,  or  with  a  noun  in 
apposition:  as, 

non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda  (Parad.  vi.  3),  not  every 

error  should  be  called  folly. 
Corinthus  lumen  Graecise  exstinctum  est,  Corinth  the  light  of 

Greece  is  put  out. 
deliciae  mese  Dicearchus  disseruit  (Tusc.  i.  31),  my  pet  Dicear- 

chus  discoursed. 

1.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  take  a  verb  in  the 
plural ;  also,  rarely,  when  one  is  in  the  ablative  with  cum : 

as, 

pater  et  avus  mortui  sunt,  his  father  and  grandfather  are 
dead. 

dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur  (Liv.  xxi.  60),  the  gen- 
eral and  several  chiefs  are  taken. 

a.  When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb  will  be 
in  the  first  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third :  as, 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis  ego  et  Cicero  valemus  (Fam.  xiv.  5),  if 
you  and  Tullia  are  ivell,  Cicero  and  I  are  'well. 

b*  If  the  subjects  are  joined  by  disjunctives,  or  if  they  are  con- 
sidered as  a  single  whole,  the  verb  is  singular :  as, 

neque  fides  neque  jusjurandum  neque  ilium  misericordiarepres- 
sit  (Ter.  Ad.),  not  faith  nor  oath,  nay,  nor  mercy,  checked 
him. 

Senatus  populusque  Romanus  intellegit  (Fam.  v.S),  the  Roman 
Senate  and  people  understand. 

c.  A  collective  noun  —  also  such  distributives  as  quisque, 
every ;  uterque,  each  —  may  take  a  plural  verb  :  as, 

pars  prsedas  agebant  (Jug.  32),  a  part  brought  in  booty. 
suum  quisque  habeant  quod  suum  est  (Plaut  Cure.),  let  every 
one  keep  his  own. 

This  is  most  common  in  poetry. 


49:   1,2.     50.]          CONSTRUCTION    OP   CASES.  113 

<?.  When  the  action  of  the  verb  belongs  to  the  subjects  separ- 
ately, it  may  agree  with  one  and  be  understood  with  the  others  :  as, 

intercedit  M.  Antonius  et  Cassius  tribuni  plebis  (B.  C.  i.  2), 
Antony  and  Casstus,  tribunes  of  the  people,  interpose. 

&.   The  Subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative. 

DEFIN. — A  Finite  Verb  is  a  verb  in  any  mood  except  the  In- 
finitive. 

a.  The  personal  pronoun,  as  subject,  is  usually  omitted  unless 
emphatic :  thus, 

loquor,  I  speak;  ego  loquor,  it  is  I  that  speak. 

6.   An  indefinite  subject  is  often  omitted :  as, 

dicunt  (ferunt,  perhibent),  they  say. 
€•  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  in  certain  phrases  :  as, 

quorsum  hsec  [spectant]  ?   -what  does  this  aim  at  ? 

ex  ungue  leonem  [cognosces], you  ivtll  know  a  lion  by  his  claw. 

The  indicative  and  infinitive  of  esse  are  most  frequently  omitted. 
(For  the  HISTORICAL  INFINITIVE,  see  §  57,  8,  h.) 

II.    Construction  of  Cases. 

NOTE.  — The  Oblique  Cases  of  nouns  express  their  relations  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence.  Originally,  the  family  of  languages  to  which 
Latin  belongs  had  at  least  seven  cases,  besides  the  vocative,  all  ex- 
pressing different  relations.  Of  these  the  Locative  and  Instrumental 
cases  were  lost,  and  their  functions  divided  among  the  others. 

The  names  of  the  cases,  except  the  Ablative,  are  of  Greejt  origin. 
The  name  genitive — Gr.  -ycviK^,  from  -ycvos  —  refers,  originally,  to  the 
class  to  which  anything  belongs.  The  dative  —  SOTIKTJ  —  is  the  case 
of  giving.  The  name  accusative  is  a  mistranslation  of  alriaTticVj,  signi- 
fying that  which  is  effected  or  caused  (alrta). 

50.     GENITIVE. 

A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not 
meaning  the  same  thing,  is  put  in  the  genitive. 

NOTE.  —  This  relation  is  most  frequently  expressed  in  English  by 
the  preposition  OF.  The  genitive  seems  originally  to  have  meant 
that  from  which  something  springs;  hence,  that  to  which  it  belongs.  From 
this  signification  most  of  its  others  may  be  deduced. 


114  CONSTRUCTION    OP    CASES.  [50:   I. 

1.  Subjective  Genitive.  The  Genitive  is  used  to' denote 
the  Author,  Owner,  Source,  and  (with  an  adjective)  Measure 
or  Quality:  as, 

libri  Ciceronis,  the  books  of  Cicero. 
Caesaris  horti,  Ccesar's  gardens. 
culmen  tecti,  the  roof  of  the  hozese. 

«•  For  the  genitive  of  possession  a  possessive  adjective  is  often 
used,  —  regularly  for  that  of  the  personal  pronouns :  as, 
.  liber  meus,  my  book. 
aliena  pericula,  other  men's  dangers. 
Sullana  tempora,  the  times  of  Sulla. 

&•  The  noun  limited  is  understood  in  a  few  expressions :  as, 

Castoris  [aedes],  the  [temple]  of  Castor. 

Hectoris  Andromache,  Hector's  [wife]  Andromache. 

c»  The  genitive  is  often  in  the  predicate,  connected  with  its 
noun  by  a  verb,  like  a  predicate  appositive :  as, 

hsec  domus  est  patris  mei,  this  house  is  my  father's. 

tutelae  nostrae  [eos]  duximus  (Liv.),  we  held  them  to  be  in  our 

protection. 
Thrasybuli  facta  lucri  fecit  (Nep.  viii.  i),  he  made  profit  of  the 

deeds  of  Thrasybulus. 
Tyros  mare  dicionis  suae  fecit  (Curt.  iv.  4),  Tyre  brought  the 

sea  under  her  sway. 
hominum  non  causarum  toti  erant  (Liv.  iii.  36),  they  belonged 

wholly  to  the  men,  not  to  the  cause. 

d*  A  phrase  or  clause  often  stands  for  the  limited  noun ;  this  is 
most  frequent  with  the  genitive  of  adjectives  or  abstract  nouns  :  as, 

neque  sui    judici  [erat]  decernere  (B.  C.  i.  35),  ft  was  not  for 

his  judgment  to  decide. 
timidi  est  optare  necem  (Ov.  M.  iv.  15),  //  is  for  the  coward  to 

wish  for  death. 

REMARK.  —  The  genitive  of  an  adjective  (especially  of  the  third 
declension)  is  thus  used  instead  of  the  neuter  nominative :  as, 

sapientis  [not  sapiens]  est  pauca  loqui,  ft  is  wise  [the  part  of  a 
wise  man]  to  say  little. 

The  neuter  of  possessives  is  used  in  the  same  way :  as, 

mentiri  non  est  meum,  */  is  not  for  me  to  lie. 
humanum  \_for  hominis]  est  errare,  //  is  man's  to  err. 

e»  A  genitive  may  denote  the  substance  of  which  a  thing  con- 
sists (a  modified  form  of  the  idea  of  source) :  as, 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 

flumina  lactis,  rivers  of  milk. 

navis  auri  (compare  Part.  Gen.),  a  shipload  of  gold. 


50:    I,  2.]  GENITIVE.  115 

/•  A  limiting  genitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  noun  in 
apposition:  as, 

nomen  insanige,  the  word  madness. 
oppidum  Antiochise,  the  city  of  Antioch. 

g*  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  quality,  but  only  when  the 
quality  is  modified  by  an  adjective  (usually  an  indefinite  one) :  as, 

vir  summse  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  highest  courage. 

magnse  est  deliberations,  it  is  an  affair  of  great  deliberation. 

magni  formica  laboris,-/£0  ant,  [a  creature]  of  great  toil. 

So  ejus  modi,  of  that  sort. 

(Compare  the  Ablative  of  Quality,  §  54,  7.) 
h*  The  genitive  (of  quality),  with  numerals,  is  used  to  define 
measures  of  length,  depth,  &c. :  as, 

fossa  trium  pedum,  a  trench  of  three  feet  [depth], 
murus  sedecim  pedum,  a  iv all  sixteen  feet  [high], 
minor  nulla  eratduum  milium  amphorum  (Fam.  xii.  i$),none 
held  less  than  2000  jars. 

i»  Certain  adjectives  of  Quantity  —  as  magni,  pluris,  and  the 
like  —  are  used  in  the  genitive  to  express  indefinite  value.  (Also 
the  nouns  nihili,  flocci,  nauci,  pili,  pensi,  terunci,  assis,  see 
Ablative  of  Price,  §  54,  8.) 

REMARK.  —  The  genitive  is  often  followed  by  the  ablatives 
causa,  gratia,  for  the  sake  of;  ergo,  because  of;  and  the  inde- 
clinable instar,  like.  . 

2.  Partitive  Genitive*  Words  denoting  a  part  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  genitive  of  the  whole  to  which  the  part  belongs. 
Partitive  words  are  the  following :  — 

a*  Nouns  or  Pronouns  :  as, 

pars  militum,  part  of  the  soldiers. 

quis  nostrum,  'which  of  us?  (but  nos  omnes,  all  of  us). 
nihil  erat  reliqui,  there  was  nothing  left. 

vastatur  agri   [id]   quod  .  .  .  (Liv.  i.  14),  so  much  of  the  land  is 
'wasted  as,  &c. 

b*  Numerals,  Comparatives,  and  Superlatives :  as, 

alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 
unus  tribunorum,  one  of  the  tribunes. 

plurimum  totius  Galliae  equitatu  valet  (B.  G.  v.  3),  is  strongest 
in  cavalry  of  all  Gaul. 

€•   Neuter  adjectives  and  pronouns  used  as  nouns :  as, 
tantum  spati,  so  much  space. 
aliquid  nummorum,  a  few  pence. 
id  loci  (or  locorum),  that  spot  of  ground. 


116  CONSTRUCTION    OF   CASES.  [50:  2. 

id  temporis,  at  that  time. 

plana  urbis,  the  level  parts  of  the  town. 

quid  novi,  'what  news  f 

REMARK. — Of  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  the  genitive 
is  only  rarely  used  in  this  way :  thus, 

nihil  novi  (gen.),  nothing  new ;  but 

nihil  memorabile  (nom.),  nothing  worth  mention. 

d*   Adverbs,  especially  of  Quantity  and  Place :  as, 

satis  pecunise,  money  enough. 

parum    oti,  not  much  ease. 

ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in  the  world  are  we  ? 

inde  loci,  next  in  order. 

istuc  aequi  bonique,  to  that  degree  of  equity  and  goodness. 

turn  temporis,  at  that  point  of  time. 

eo  miseriarum  (Sail.)?  to  that  pitch  of  misery. 

e.  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  use  the  partitive  genitive 
after  adjectives,  instead  of  a  noun  in  its  proper  case  :  as, 

sequimur  te  sancte  deorum  (/En.  iv.  576),  we  follow  thee,  O 

holy  deity. 

nigrse  lanarum  (Plin.  H.  N.  viii.  48),  black  wools. 
electi  juvenum  (Liv.  xxx.  9),  the  choice  of  the  young  men. 

REMARK. — !•  Cardinal  numbers,  with  quidam,  a  certain  one, 
more  commonly,  other  words  rarely,  take  the  ablative  with  e  (ex) 
or  de,  instead  of  the  genitive :  as, 

unus  ex  tribunis,  one  of  the  tribunes. 

minumus  ex  illis  (Jug.  n),  the  youngest  of  them. 

medius  ex  tribus  (ib.),  the  midst  of  the  three. 

2.  With  nouns  uterque  generally  agrees  as  an  adjective ;  but 
with  pronouns  it  always  takes  a  genitive  :  as, 

uterque  consul,  both  the  consuls. 
uterque  nostrum,  both  of  us. 

3.  Numbers  and  words  of  quantity  including  the  wliole  of  any- 
thing—  as  omnes,  all;  quot,  how  many — take  a  case  in  agree- 
ment, and  not  the  partitive  genitive  :  as, 

nos  omnes,  all  of  us. 
qui  omnes,  all  of  whom. 

quot  sunt  hostes,  how  many  of  the  enemy  are  there  f 
cave  inimicos  qui  multi  sunt,  beware  of  your  enemies,  of  whom 
you  have  many. 

So  when  no  others  are  thought  of,  although  such  exist :  as, 

multi  milites,  many  of  the  soldiers. 
nemo  Romanus,  not  one  Roman. 


50:  3-]  GENITIVE.  117 

4.  Rarely  two  genitives  are  used  with  one  noun  :  as, 

animi  multarum  rerum  percursio  (Tusc.  iv.  13),  the  mind's 
traversing  of  many  things. 

3.  Objective  Genitive.  With  many  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives implying  action,  the  genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  object. 

NOTE.  —  This  is  an  extension  of  the  idea  of  belonging  to;  as  in  the 
phrase  odium  Caesaris,  hate  of  Ccesar,  the  hate  in  a  passive  sense 
belongs  to  Caesar,  though  in  its  active  sense  he  is  the  object  of  it. 

a.  Nouns  of  action,  agency,  and  feeling  govern  the  genitive 
of  the  object :  as, 

desiderium   oti,  longing  for  rest. 

vacatio  militiae,  a  respite  of  military  service. 

gratia   benefici,  gratitude  for  a  kindness. 

fug  a  malorum,  refuge  from  disaster. 

laudator  temporis  acti,  a  praiser  of  the  past. 

injuria  mulierum  Sabinarum  (Liv.),  the  wrong  done  to  the 
Sabine  'women. 

memoria  nostri  tua  (Fam.  xiii.  17),  your  memory  of  us. 

consensio  divinarum  humanarumque  rerum  (Lael.  6),  the  har- 
mony of  divine  and  human  things. 

vim  suorum  pro  suo  periculo  defendebant  (B.C.  iii.  no),  they 
parried  the  attack  on  their  comrades  as  if  it  'were  their  own 
peril. 

Occasionally  possessive  adjectives  are  used  in  the  same  way  (see 
§  47,  5,  c). 

6.  Adjectives  requiring  an  object  of  reference  (relative  adjec- 
tives) govern  the  genitive. 

These  are  —  1.  Adjectives  denoting  desire,  knowledge,  memory, 
fulness •,  power,  sharing,  guilt,  and  their  opposites ;  2.  Verbals  in 
ax;  3.  Participles  in  ns  when  used  to  denote  a  disposition  and 
not  a  particular  act,  so  that  they  become  adjectives  :  as, 

avidus  laudis,  greedy  of  praise. 

fastidiosus  literarum,  disdaining  letters. 

juris  peritus,  skilled  in  law. 

habetis  ducem  memorem  vesfri  oblitiim  sui  (Cat.  iv.  cj),  you 
have  a  leader  who  thinks  of  you  and  forgets  himself. 

plena  consiliorum  inania  verborum  (De  Or.  i.  ()},  full  of  wis- 
dom, void  of  words. 

rationis  et  orationis  expertes  (Off.  i.  16),  devoid  of  reason  and 
speech. 

virtutis  compos  (id.),  possessed  of  virtue. 

paternorum  bonorum  exheres  (De  Or.  i.  38),  ousted  from  his 
father's  estate. 

rei  capitalis  affinis  (2  Verr.  ii.  43),  accessory  to  a  capital  crime. 

justum  ac  tenacem  propositi  virum  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  3),  a  man  just 
and  steadfast  to  his  purpose. 


118  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [50:   3. 

si  quern  tui  amantiorem  cognovisti  (G^.  Fr.  ix.  i),  if  you  have 

known  any  more  fond  of  you. 

multitude  insolens  belli  (B.  C.  ii.  36),  a  crowd  unused  to -war. 
sitiens  sanguinis,  thirsting  for  blood.     But, 
Tiberius  sitiens  sanguinem  (Tac.),   Tiberius  [then]  thirsting 
for  blood. 

€•  Some  other  adjectives  of  similar  meaning  occasionally  take 
the  genitive ;  and  the  poets  and  late  writers  use  almost  any  adjec- 
tive with  a  genitive  of  specification :  as, 

callidus  rei  militaris  (Tac.  H.  ii.  31),  skilled  in  soldiership. 

pecuniae  liberates  (Sail.  C~7),  lavish  of  money. 

virtutum  sterile  seculum  (id.  i.  3),  a  century  barren  in  virtue. 

pauper  aquarum  (Hor.),  scant  of  water. 

prodigus  aeris  (id.),  a  spendthrift  of  wealth. 

notus  animi,  of  known  bravery. 

fessi  rerum  (Virg.),  weary  of  toil. 

laeta  laborum  (id.),  glad  of  work. 

modicus  voluptatis,  moderate  in  pleasure* 

integer    vitae  scelerisque  purus   (Hor.),  upright  in  life,  and 

clear  of  guilt. 
docilis  modorum  (id.),  teachable  in  measures. 

REMARK.  — Animi  (strictly  a  locative,  plural  animis),  is  added 
to  adjectives  of  feeling :  as, 

seger  animi,  sick  at  heart. 
confusus  animi,  disturbed  in  spirit. 

d»  A  few  adjectives  of  likeness,  nearness,  belonging  —  requir- 
ing the  dative  as  such  —  take  the  possessive  genitive :  these  are, 
aequalis,  affinis,  communis,  finitimus,  par,  propiiiqims,  pro- 
prius  (regularly),  similis,  viciiius. 

REMARK.  —  One  noun  limiting  another  is  regularly  used  in  the 
genitive,  and  not  with  a  preposition,  —  prepositions  being  origi- 
nally adverbs,  and  requiring  a  verb.  Sometimes,  however,  one 
noun  has  another  connected  with  it  by  a  preposition.  This  hap- 
pens with  nouns  of  action,  feeling,  and  motion ;  some  relations  of 
place  to  or  in  which  or  from  which  (including  origin)  \  accompani- 
ment, &c. :  as,  - 

odium  in  Caesarem  (or  odium  Caesaris),  hate  of  Ccesar. 

merita  erga  me  (Cic.),  services  to  me. 

auxilium  adversus  inimicos  (id.),  help  against  enemies. 

reditus  in  caelum  (id.),  return  to  heaven. 

impetus  in  me  (id.),  attack  on  me. 

excessus  e  vita  (id.),  departure  from  life. 

e  prcelio  nuntius,  a  messenger  from  the  battle. 

castra  ad  Bagradam  (Caes.),  camp  near  the  Bagrada. 

invidia  ob  scelera  (Sail.),  odium  for  his  crimes.     So, 

domum  reditionis  spes  (id.),  the  hope  of  returning  home. 


50:4-]  GENITIVE.  119 

4.  Genitive  after  Verbs.  The  genitive  is  used  as  the 
object  of  several  classes  of  Verbs. 

a.  Verbs  of  Remembering,  Forgetting,  and  Reminding,  take 
the  genitive  of  the  object  when  they  are  used  of  a  continued  state 
of  mind,  but  the  accusative  when  used  of  a  single  act:  as, 

pueritiae  memoriam  recordari  (Arch.i.),  to  recall  the  memory 

of  childhood. 
animus  meminit  praeteritorum  (Div.  i.  30),  the  soul  remembers 

the  past. 

venit  mihi  in  mentem  illius  diei,  I  bethought  me  of  that  day. 
obliviscere  caedis  atque  incendiorum  (Cat.),  turn  your  mind 

from  slaughter  and  conjlagrations. 

bona  praeterita  non  meminerunt  (Fin.  ii.  20),  they  do  not  re- 
member past  blessings. 

memineram  Paullum  (Cat.  M.  2),  I  remembered  Paulus. 
memini  etiam  quae  nolo  (Fin.  ii.  33),  I  remember  even  'what  I 

would  not. 

totam  causam  oblitus  est  (Brut.  60),  be  forgot  the  'whole  case. 
REMARK. — The  above  distinction  is  unimportant  as  to  verbs  of 
reminding,  which  take  the  genitive  except  of  neuter  pronouns :  as, 
hoc  te  admoneo,  /  warn  you  of  this.  The  accusative  is  always 
used  of  a  person  or  thing  remembered  by  an  eye-witness.  Recorder 
is  almost  always  construed  with  an  accusative,  or  with  a  phrase  or 
clause. 

&•  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Condemning,  and  Acquitting,  take  the 
genitive  of  the  charge  or  penalty :  as, 

arguit  me  furti,  he  accuses  me  of  theft. 

peculates  damnatus  (pecuniae  publicse  damnatus)  (Flac.  18), 

condemned  for  embezzlement. 
capitis  damnatus,  condemned  to  death. 

Peculiar  genitives,  under  this  construction,  are  — 
capitis  (damnare  capitis,  to  sentence  to  deatli)  ; 
majestatis,  treason  (crime  against  the  dignity  of  the  State); 
repetundarum,  extortion  (lit.  of  an  action  for  claiming  back 

money  wrongfully  taken) ; 
voti  (damnatus  or  reus  voti,  bound  to  the  payment  of  one's 

vow,  i.e.  successful  in  one^s  effort-). 

REMARK. — The  crime  may  be  expressed  by  the  ablative  with 
de;  the  punishment  by  the  ablative  alone  :  as,  /^  -2-93  (*-) 

de  vi  et  majestatis  damnati  (Phil,  i.),  condemned  of  assault  and 

treason. 
vitia  autem  hominum  atque  fraudes  damnis,  ignominiis,  vin- 

culis,  verberibus,  exiliis,   morte  damnantur   (De  Or.  i   43), 

but  the  vices  and  crimes  of  men  are  punished  ivith  fines,  dism 

honor,  chains,  scourging,  exile,  death. 

Bi^t,  inter  sicarios  accusare  (defeiidere;,  to  accuse  of  murder. 


120  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [50:  4. 

c.  Many  verbs  of  Emotion  take  the  genitive  of  the  object  which 
excites  the  feeling  (Gen.  of  source).  These  are  — 

1.  Verbs  of  pity,  as  misereor  and  miseresco:  as, 
miserescite  regis  (/En.,  viii.  573),  pity  the  king. 

miserere  animi  non  digna  ferentis  (id.  ii.  144),  pity  a  soul  that 

endures  unworthy  things. 
But  miser  or,  commiseror,  bewail,  take  the  accusative. 

2.  The  impersonals  miseret,  piget,  poenitet,  pudet,  taedet 
(or  pertaesum  est),  which  take  also  the  accusative  of  the  person 
affected  (§  39,  2) :  as, 

hos  homines  infamise  suze  neque  pudet  neque  tsedet  (Verr.  i. 
12),  these  men  are  neither  ashamed  nor  weary  of  their  dis- 
honor. 

REMARK.  —  An  infinitive  or  clause  may  be  used  with  these  verbs 
instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  noun  :  as, 

me  poenitet  hsec  fecisse,  I  repent  of  having  done  this. 
Sometimes  they  are  used  personally :  as, 

nonne  te  hsec*  pudent  (Ter.  Ad.),  do  not  these  things  shame 

you  ? 

d*  The  impersonals  interest  and  refert,  it  concerns,  takes  the 
genitive  of  the  person  affected,  —  the  subject  of  the  verb  being  a 
neuter  pronoun  or  a  substantive  clause  :  as, 

Clodi  intererat  Milonem  perire  (Mil.  21),  it  ivas  the  interest  of 
Clodius  that  Milo  should  die. 

But  instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun  the  possessive  is 
used  in  the  ablative  singular  feminine :  as, 

quid  tua  id  refert?  —  magni  (Ter.  Ph.),  how  does  that  concern 
you  f  much. 

refert  is  seldom  used  in  any  other  way ;  but  it  takes,  rarely,  the 
dativus  commodi  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  i,  49).  The  object  of  interest  is 
sometimes  in  the  accusative  with  ad:  as, 

magni  ad  honorem  nostrum  interest  (Fam.  xvi.  i),  it  is  of 
consequence  to  our  honor. 

NOTE.  —  The  word  interest  maybe  used  (1)  impersonally  with  the 
genitive,  as  above  ;  (2)  personally  with  the  dative  :  as,  interest  exer- 
citui,  he  is  present  with  the  army;  (3)  with  the  accusative  and  pre- 
positions :  as,  interest  inter  exercitum  et  castra,  he  is  between  —  or, 
there  is  a  difference  between  —  the  army  and  camp. 

€•  Some  verbs  of  plenty  and  want  govern  the  genitive  (rarely, 
except  egeo  and  indigeo,  need)  :  as, 

quid  est  quod  defensionis  indigeat?    (Rose.  Am.  12),  what  is 

there  that  needs  defence  f 
satagit  rerum  suarum,  he  has  his  hands  full  with  his  own  affairs. 


51:    I.]  DATIVE.  121 

Also,  sometimes,  potior,  get  possession  of;  as  always  in  the  phrase 
potiri  rerum,  to  be  master  of  affairs.  But  these  verbs  more 
commonly  take  the  ablative. 

REMARK.  —  The  genitive  is  also  used  after  the  adverbs  pridie, 
the  day  before;  postridie,  the  day  after ;  tenus,  as  far  as:  as, 

postridie  ejus  diei  (B.  G.  v.  10),  the  next  day. 

51.     DATIVE. 

The  Dative  is  used  of  the  object  indirectly  affected 
by  the  action,  which  is  usually  denoted  in  English  by 
TO  or  FOR  (Indirect  Object). 

NOTE.  —  The  dative  seems  to  have  the  primary  meaning  of  towards, 
and  to  be  closely  akin  to  the  Locative.  But  this  meaning  is  lost  in 
Latin,  except  in  some  adverbial  forms  (eo,  illo,  &c.)  and  in  the  poets. 
In  most  of  its  derived  meanings,  it  denotes  an  object  not  merely  (like 
the  Accusative)  as  passively  affected  by  the  action,  or  caused  by  it ;  but 
as  reciprocally  sharing  in  the  action,  or  receiving  it  actively.  Thus,  in 
dedit  mihi  librum,  he  gave  me  a  book,  or  fecit  mihi  iujuriam,  he  did 
me  an  injury ;  it  is  I  that  receive  the  book  or  feel  the  wrong.  Hence 
persons,  or  objects  personified,  are  most  likely  to  be  in  the  dative. 
So  in  the  Spanish,  the  dative  is  used  whenever  a  Person  is  the  object 
of  an  action  :  as,  yo  veo  al  hombre,  /  see  the  man. 

As  this  difference  between  the  accusative  and  dative  (direct  and 
indirect  object)  depends  on  the  view  taken  by  the  writer,  verbs  of 
similar  meaning  in  different  languages,  or  even  in  the  same,  differ,  in 
the  case  of  the  object.  In  English,  especially,  owing  to  the  loss  of  its 
cases,  many  verbs  are  construed  as  transitive,  which  in  Latin  require 
the  dative.  Thus  believe,  which  in  English  originally  governed  the 
genitive,  has  become  transitive ;  while  the  corresponding  verb  in 
Latin,  credo  (a  compound  of  cred  and  do  (DHA),  to  place  confidence  in) 
takes  the  dative. 

1.  Dative  with  Transitives.  Transitive  verbs,  whose 
meaning  permits  it,  take  the  dative  of  the  indirect  object,  with 
the  accusative  of  the  direct. 

These  are,  especially,  verbs  of  Giving,  Telling,  Sending,  and 
the  like :  as, 

do  tibi  librum,  I  give  you  a  book. 

valetudini  tribuamus  aliquid  (Tusc.  i.  118),  let  us  allow  some- 
thing to  health. 

illud  tibi  affirmo  (Fam.  i.  7),  this  I  assure  you. 

Pompeio  plurimum  debebam  (id.  i.  9),  lotvedmuch  to  Pompey. 

id  omne  tibi  polliceor  ac  defero  (Man.  24),  all  this  I  promise 
you  and  bestow.  Q 


122  CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES.  [51:    I,  2. 

commendo  tibi  ejus  omnia  negotia  (Fam.  i.  i),  I  put  all  his 

affairs  in  your  hands. 
amico  munusculum  mittere  'id.  ix.  12),  to  send  a  slight  tribute 

to  a  friend. 
illi  inimico  servum  rem*        ^Deiot.  ii.),  to  him,  his  enemy,  he 

returned  a  slave. 
dabis  profecto  misericordiae  quod  iracundiae  negavisti  (id.  14), 

you  witt  surely  grant  to  mercy  'what  you  refused  to  wrath. 
Karthagini   bellum   denuntio   (Cat.  M.  6),  /  announce  war  to 

Carthage. 
curls  gaudia  misces   (Catull.  —  only  poet.) ,  thou  minglest  joy 

•with  care. 

a.  In  the  passive,  such  verbs  retain  the  dative  of  the  indirect 
object:  as, 

hsec  nobis  nuntiantur,  these  things  are  told  us. 

b.  When  the  idea  of  motion  is  distinctly  conveyed,  a  preposi- 
tion is  used  (except  by  poetic  use) :  as, 

has  litteras  ad  te  mitto,  I  send  you  this  letter. 

c.  A  few  verbs  of  this  class  —  under  a  different  view  of  the 
action  —  may  take  the  accusative  of  a  person,  with  an  ablative  of 
means. 

Such  verbs   are    dono,    impertio,   induo,   exuo,  adspergo, 
inspergo,    circumdo,    circumfundo,    prohibeo,    intercludo. 

Thus  — 

donat  coronas  suis,  he  presents  wreaths  to  fits  men  ;   or, 

donat  suos  coronis,  he  presents  his  men  with  wreaths. 

pomis  se   induit  arbos   (G.  iv.  143),  the  tree  decks  itself  with 

fruits. 
copiis  (dat.)  armis  exutis  (B.  G.  iii.6),  the  forces  being  stripped 

of  arms. 
aram  sanguine  adspergere  (N.  D.  iii.  36),  to  sprinkle  the  altar 

with  blood. 

2.  Dative  after  Intransitives,    Intransitive  verbs  take 
the  dative  of  the  indirect  object  only :  as, 

cedant  arma  togae  (Phil.  i.  8),  let  arms  give  way  to  the  gown. 
quid    homini     potest   turpius    usuvenire    (Quinct.    15),    what 

more  shameful  can  befall  a  man  f 
respondi  maximis  criminibus  (Phil.  i.  14),  I  have  answered  the 

heaviest  charges. 

ut  ita  cuique  eveniat  (id.  46),  that  it  may  so  turn  out  to  each. 
manent  ingenia  senibus  (Cat.  M.  7),  old  men  keep  their  pozvers 

of  mind. 
vento  et  fluctibus   loqui   (Lucr.  iv.  491),  to  talk  to  wind  and 

wave. 


51:   2.]  DATIVE.  123 

nec  quereris  patri  (Juv.  11.  131},  you  complain  not  to  a  father. 
non  cuivis  homini  contingit  adire  Corinthum  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  17), 
it  is  not  every  mans  luck  to p*  ' '*>  Corinth. 

a.  Most  verbs  signifying  to  favor,  help,  please,  serve,  trust, 
and  their  contraries,  —  also,  to  believe,  persuade,  command,  obey, 
engy,  threaten,  pwrdon,  and  spare, — take  the  Dative  in  Latin, 
though  transitive  in  English. 

These  include,  among  others,  the  following :  adversor,  credo, 
faveo,  fido,  ignosco,  impero,  invldeo,  irascor,  noceo,  parco, 
pareo,  placeo,  servio,  studeo,  suadeo  (persuadeo)  :  as, 

cur  mihi  invides,  why  do  you  envy  me? 

civitati  serviebat,  he  served  the  state. 

tibi  favemus,  we  favor  you. 

mihi  parcit  atque  ignoscit,  he  spares  and  pardons  me. 

sontibus  opitulari  poteram  (Fam.  iv.  13),  /  was  able  to  help  the 

guilty. 

bonis  invident  (Sail.),  they  envy  the  good. 
Catoni  resistimus  (Fam.  i.  i),  ive  withstand  Cato. 
non  omnjbus  servio  (id.  xvi.  13),  /  am  not  a  servant  to  every 

man. 
cum  ceteris  turn  mihi  ipsi  displiceo  (id.  iv.  13),  /  dissatisfy 

other  people  and  myself  too. 

non  parcam  operse  (id.  xvi.  13),  I  will  spare  no  pains. 
sic  mihi  persuasi  (Cat.  M.  21),  so  I  have  persuaded  myself. 
huic  legioni   Csesar  confidebat  maxime  (B.  G.  i.  40),  in  this 

legion  CcBsar  had  special  confidence. 
ex  quo  efficitur  hominem  naturae  obedientem  homini  nocere 

non  posse  (Off.   iii.  5),  whence  it  appears  that  a  man  while 

obeying  Nature  cannot  harm  a  fellow -man. 

REMARK. — !•  Some  verbs  of  the  same  meanings  take  the  ac- 
cusative :  as,  juvo,  adjuvo,  help;  laedo,  injure;  jubeo,  order; 
deficio,  fail. 

2.  Some  take  the  dative  or  accusative  indifferently :  as,  adulor, 
flatter;   aemulor,   rival;    comitor,   attend;    despero,   despair; 
praestolor,  await;  medeor,  medicor,  heal. 

3.  Some  take  the  dative  or  accusative  according  to  their  mean- 
ing: as, 

parti  civium  consulunt   (Off.  i.  25),   they  consult  for  a  party 

of  the  citizens. 

cum  te  consuluissem  (Fam.  xi.  29),  when  I  had  consulted  you. 
metuens  pueris  (Plant.  Am.  v.  i),  anxious  for  the  boys. 
nec  metutint  deos  (Ter.  Hec.  v.  2),  they  fear  not  even  the  gods 

(so  also  timeo.} 

ei  caverc  volo  (Fam.  iii.  i),  I  will  have  a  care  for  him. 
caveto  omnia  (id.  xi.  21),  beware  of  everything. 


124  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [51:   2. 

prospicite  patrise  (Cat.  iv.  2),  have  regard  for  the  state. 

prospicere  sedem  senectuti  (Liv.  iv.  49),  to  provide  a  habita- 
tion/or old  age  [so  also  providere^. 

nequeo  mihi  temperare  (Plin.  xviii.  6),  I  cannot  control  myself. 

rempublicam  temperare  (Tusc.  i.  i),  to  govern  the  state  [so 
also  moderor\. 

See  Lexicon,   under  convenio,  cupio,  fido    (abl.),  insisto, 
maneo,  praesto,  praeverto,  recipio,  renuntio,  solvo,  succedo. 

b.  The  dative  is  used  after  the  Impersonals  libet,  licet ;  after 
verbs  compounded  with  satis,  bene,  and  male;   together  with 
the  following:  —  gratificor,  gratulor,  haereo   (rarely),   jungo, 
medeor,  medicor,  misceo  (poetic),  nubo,  permitto,  plaudo, 
probo,  studeo,  supplico ;  and  the  phrases  auctor  esse,  gratias 
agere   (habere),-  morem  gerere  (morigeror),  supplex  (dicto 
audiens)  esse:    as, 

quod  mihi  maxime  lubet  (Fam.  i.  18),  what  most  pleases  me. 
Di  isti  Segulio  male  faciant  (id.  xi.  21),  may  the  gods  send  evil 

upon  that  Segulius. 

mihi  ipsi  nunquam  satisfacio  (id.  17),  I  never  satisfy  myself. 
virgo  nupsit  ei  (Div.  i.  46),  a  maiden  married  him. 
Pompeio   se   gratulari   putent   (id.   i.  i),  they  suppose  they  are 

doing  Pompey  a  service. 

sed  tibi  morem  gessi  (id.  ii.  18),  but  I  have  deferred  to  you. 
tibi  permitto  respondere   (N.  D.   iii.  i),  I  give  you  leave  to 

ansiver. 
armatus  adversario  maledixi  (Fam.  vi.  7),  in  arms  I  cursed  the 

foe. 
voluptati  aurium  morigerari  (Or.  48),  to  humor  the  lust  of  the 

ears. 
habeo  senectuti  maximam  gratiam  (Cat.  M.  14),  I  owe  old  age 

much  thanks. 
maximas  tibi  gratias  ago,  I  return  you  the  -warmest  thanks. 

c.  Many  verbs  of  the  above  classes  take  an  accusative  of  the 
thing,  with  a  dative  of  the  person :  as, 

cui  cum  rex  crucem  minitaretur  (Tusc.  i.  43),  when  the  king 

threatened  him  with  the  cross. 
invident  nobis  optimam  magistram  (id.  iii.  2),  they  grudge  us 

our  best  of  teachers  [Nature]. 
frumento  exercitui  proviso   (B.  G.  v.  44),  when  the  army  was 

supplied  with  corn. 
puerum  [vocare]  cui  cenam  imperaret  (Ros.  Am.  21),  to  call  a 

boy  and  order  supper  of  him. 
imperat  oppidanis   decem   talenta,  he  exacts  ten  talents  of  the 

townspeople. 
omnia  sibi  ignoscere  (Veil.  ii.  30),  to  pardon  one's  self  every- 


51:  2.]  DATIVE.  125 

d.  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob, 
post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super  —  and  some  with  circum  —  take  the 
dative  of  the  object  on  account  of  their  acquired  meaning  (many 
take  also  the  accusative,  being  originally  transitive) :  as, 

neque  enim  assentior  iis  (Lsel.  3),  for  I  do  not  agree  -with  them. 
tempestati  obsequi  artis  est  (Fam.  i.  9),  it  is  a  point  of  skill  to 

yield  to  the  -weather. 
omnibus  negotiis  non  interfuit  solum  sed  prsefuit  (id.  i.  6),  he 

not  only  had  a  hand  in  all  matters,  but  took  the  lead  in  them. 
pueritiae    adulescentia    obrepit    (Cat.   M.),  youth  steals  upon 

childhood. 
[Archise]  antecellere  omnibus  contigit  (Arch.  3),  it  was  his 

good  fortune  to  outvie  all. 
quantum   natura  hominis  pecudibus  antecedit  (Off.  i.  30),  so 

far  as  man's  nature  is  superior  to  brutes. 
nos  ei  succedimus  (Fam.  vii.  31),  we  succeed  him. 
criminibus  illis  pro  rege  se  supponit  reum  (Deiot.  15),  he  takes 

those  charges  upon  himself  in  the  king  s  behalf. 
nee  unquam  succumbet  inimicis   (id.  13),  he  'will  never  bend 

before  his  foes. 
illis  libellis  nomen  suum  inscribunt  (Arch.  13),  they  put  their 

own  name  to  those  papers. 
tibi  obtempera  (F.  ii.  7),  restrain  yourself . 
hibernis   Labienum    prseposuit  (Cses.),   he  set  Labienus  over 

the  -winter-quarters. 
cur  mihi   te  offers,  ac  meis  commodis  officis  et  obstas  (Ros. 

Am.  38),  why  do  you  put  yourself  in  my  way,  to  hinder  and 

withstand  my  advantage  ? 

So  excello:  as, 

tu  longe  aliis  excellis  (De  Or.  ii.  ^,  you  far  excel  others. 

REMARK.  —  1.  Some  of  the  above  compounds  acquire  a  transi- 
tive meaning,  and  take  the  accusative :  as,  aggredior,  approach ; 
adire,  go  to  ;  antecedo,  anteeo,  antegradior,  precede  (both  cases) ; 
convenio,  meet;  iiieo,  enter;  obeo,  encounter;  offendo,  hit; 
oppugno,  oppose ;  subeo,  go  under  (take  up) :  as, 

nos  oppugnat  (Fam.  i.  i),  he  opposes  us. 

quis  audeat  bene  comitatum  aggredi,  who  would  dare  encounter 

a  man  -well- attended  ? 
munus  obire  (Lael.  2),  to  attend  to  a  duty. 

2.  The  adjective  obvius  —  also  the  adverb  obviam  —  with  a 
verb  takes  the  dative  :  as, 

si  ille  obvius  ei  futurus  non  erat  (Mil.  18),  if  he  was  not  intend- 
ing to  get  in  his  way. 
m'hi  obviam  venisti  (Fam.  ii.  16),  you  came  to  meet  me. 


126  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [51:   2,3. 

e.  Many  compounds  of  ab,  de,  ex,  with  adimo,  take  the  dative 
(especially  of  persons)  instead  of  the  ablative  of  separation,  — 
the  action  being  more  vividly  represented  as  done  to  the  object 
affected  by  it :  as, 

vitam  adulescentibus  vis  aufert  (C.  M.  19),  force  deprives  young 

men  of  life. 

nihil  enim  tibi  detraxit  senectus  (id.  i),for  age  has  robbed  you 
1  of  nothing. 

nee  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorqueri  volo  (id.  23),  nor  do  / -wish 

this  error  wrested  from  me. 

cum  extorta  mihi  veritas  esset  (Or.  48),  'when  the  truth  had 
•    been  forced  from  me. 

REMARK.  —  The  distinct  idea  of  place,  —  and,  in  general,  names 
of  things,  —  require  the  ablative  with  a  preposition ;  or  both  con- 
structions may  be  used  together :  as, 

ilium  ex  periculo  eripuit  (B.  G.  iv.  12),  he  dragged  him  out  of 

danger. 
victoriam  eripi  sibi  e  manibus,  that  victory  should  be  wrested 

from  his  hands. 

f.  Intransitive  verbs  governing  the  dative  can  be  used  in  the 
Passive  only  impersonally:  as, 

cui  parci  potuit  (Liv.  xxi.  12),  who  could  be  spared? 

non  modo  non  invidetur  illi  setati  verum  etiam  favetur  (Off.  ii. 

13),  that  age  [youth]  is  not  only  not  envied,  but  is  even  favored. 
mihi  quidem  persuader!  nunquam  potuit  (C.  M.  22),  I  for  my 

part  could  never  be  persuaded. 

resistendum  senectuti  est  (id.  n),  -we  must  resist  old  age. 
plaudi  tibi  non  solere  (Deiot.  12),  that  you  are  not  ^vont  to  be 

applauded. 
tempori  serviendum  est  (Fam.  ix.  7),  we  must  serve  the  time. 

g.  The  dative  is  often  used  by  the  poets  in  constructions  which 
would  strictly  require  another  case  with  a  preposition :  as, 

differt  sermoni  (Hor.),  differs  from  prose  [a  sermone]. 
tibi  certet  (Virg.).  may  vie  with  you  [tecum]. 
lateri  abdidit  ensem  (id.),  buried  the  sword  in  his  side  [in  lateral, 
solstitium  pecori  defendite  (Eel.  vii.  47),  keep  the  noontide  from 
the  flock  [a  pecore]. 

Here  the  poets  regard  the  acting  as  done  to  the  thing  affected,  for 
greater  vividness  of  expression. 

3.  Dative  of  Possession.    The  dative  is  used  after  esse 
and  similar  words  to  denote  the  Owner :  as, 
est  mihi  liber,  /  have  a  book. 


51:  3,  4-]  DATIVE.  127 

REMARK.  —  The  Genitive  or  a  possessive  with  esse  emphasizes 
the  possessor;  the  Dative  the  fact  of  possession:  as,  liber  est 
meus,  the  book  is  mine  (and  no  one's  else) ;  est  mihi  liber,  /  have 
a  book  (among  other  things) .  This  is  the  usual  form  to  denote 
simple  possession ;  habeo,  /  have,  generally  signifying  hold,  often 
with  some  secondary  meaning :  as, 

legionem  quam  secum  habebat  (B.  G.  i.  8),  the  legion  'which 

he  had  'with  him. 
domitas  habere  libidines  (De  Or.),  to  keep  the  passions  under. 

a.  Compounds  of  esse  take  the  dative  (excepting  abesse  and 
posse ;  for  other  compounds,  see  above,  2,  d) . 

b.  After  nomen  est,  and  similar  expressions,  the  name  is  usu- 
ally put  in  the  dative  by  a  kind  of  apposition  with  the  person :  as, 

puero  ab   inopia  Egerio  inditum   nomen  (Liv.  i.  34),  the  boy 

*w as  called  Rgerius  from  his  poverty. 
cui  Africano  fuit  cognomen  (Liv.  xxv.  2),  whose  surname  'was 

Africanus. 

But  the  name  may  be  in  apposition  with  nomen;  or  in  the  genitive 
(§  50,  i,/)  :  as, 

cui  nomen  Arethusa  (Verr.  iv.  52),  [a  fount]  called  Arethusa. 
nomen  Mercuri  est  mihi  (Plaut.  Am.),  my  name  is  Mercury. 

4.  Dative  of  Agency.  The  dative  is  used,  after  some 
passive  forms,  to  denote  the  agent:  viz. 

a.  Regularly  with  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive,  to  denote  the 
person  on  whom  the  necessity  rests :  as, 

haec  vobis  provincia  est  defendenda  (Man.  6),  this  province  is 

for  you  to  defend  [to  be  defended  by  you], 
mihi  est  pugnandum,  I  have  to  fight  [i.e.,  the  need  of  fighting 

is  mine;  compare  mihi  est  liber]. 

b.  The  dative  is  often  used  after  perfect  participles,  especially 
when  used  in  an  adjective  sense,  —  rarely  after  other  parts  of  the 
verb:  as, 

mihi  deliberatum  et  constitutum  est  (Rull.  i.  8),  I  have  deliber- 
ated and  resolved. 

oratori  omnia  quaesita  esse  debent  (De  Or.  iii.  14),  an  orator 
should  search  everything. 

acceptus  mihi,  acceptable  to  me. 

c.  By  the  poets  and  later  writers  it  is  used  in  this  way  after 
almost  any  passive  verb :  as, 

neque  cernitur  ulli  (^En.  i.  440),  nor  is  seen  by  any. 
felix  est  dicta  sorori  (Fast,  iii.),  she  'was  called  happy  by  her 
sister. 


128  CONSTRUCTION    OF   CASES.  [51:4,5,6. 

REMARK.  —  The  dative  is  regularly  used  after  the  passive  of 
video  (usually  to  be  rendered  seem)  :  as, 

videtur  mihi,  it  seems  (or  seems  good)  to  me. 

5.  Dative  of  Service.     The  dative  is  used  to  denote 
the  purpose  or  end ;  often  with  another  dative  of  the  person 
or  thing  affected :  as, 

reipublicae  cladi  sunt  (Jug.  85),  they  are  ruin  to  the  State. 

rati  sese  dis  immortalibus  curse  esse  (id.  75),  thinking  them- 
selves to  be  the  special  care  of  the  gods. 

magno  usui  nostris  fuit  (B.  G.  iv-  25),  //  was  of  great  service 
to  our  men. 

tertiam  aciem  nostris  subsidio  misit  (id.),  he  sent  the  third  line 
as  a  relief  to  our  men. 

omnia  deerant  quae  ad  reficiendas  naves  erant  usui  (id.  29),  all 
things  -were  wanting  -which  -were  of  use  for  repairing  the  ships. 

REMARK.  —  In  this  use  the  dative  is  nearly  equivalent  to  a  noun 
in  apposition  with  the  subject  or  object  of  the  verb.  It  is  common 
with  the  words  cordi,  a  delight  (lit.  to  the  heart)  ;  dono,  a  gift ; 
emolumeiito,  a  gain ;  usui,  an  advantage ;  vitio,  a  fault.  The 
indeclinable  adjective  frugi  is  properly  a  dative  of  service. 

6.  Dative  of  Nearness,  &c.     The  dative  is  used  after 
Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  to  denote  that  to  which  the  given 
quality  is  directed,  or  for  which  it  exists. 

Such  are  especially  words  of  fitness,  nearness,  likeness,  service, 
inclination,  and  their  opposites  :  as, 

nihil  est  tarn  naturae  aptum   (Lsel.  5),  nothing  is  so  ftted  to 

nature. 
carus  omnibus  exspectatusque  venies  (F.  xvi.  7),  you  iv  ill  come 

loved  and  longed  for  by  all. 
locum  divinae  naturae  aeternitatique  contrarium  (Cat.  M.  21), 

a  point  opposed  to  the  divine  nature  and  eternity. 
nihil  difficile  amanti  puto  (Or.  10),  I  think  nothing  hard  to  a 

lover. 
pompse  quam  pugnae  aptius  (id.  1$)*,  fitter  for  a  procession  than 

a  battle. 
consentanetim  tempori  et  personae  (id.  22),  adapted  to  the  time 

and  the  party. 
rebus  ipsis  par  et  aequalis  oratio  (id.  36),   a  speech  equal  and 

level  'with  the  subject. 

Also,  in  poetic  and  colloquial  use,  idem,  the  same:  as, 
in  eadem  arm  a  nobis  (Cic.),  to  the  same  arms  ivit/i  us. 
a»   Adjectives  of  Usefulness  or  Fitness  take  oftener  the  accusa- 
tive with  ad,  but  sometimes  the  dative  :  as, 


51:  6,  7-]  DATIVE.  129 

aptus  ad  rem  militarem,  jit  for  a  soldier's  duty. 
locus  ad  insidias  aptior  (Mil.  20),  a  place  fitter  for  lying-in^ 
ad  amicitiam  idoneus  (Lael.  17),  apt  to  friendship.  {wait. 

castris  idoneum  iocum  deligit  (B.  G.  vi.  10),  he  selects  a  suit- 
able camping-ground. 

&•  Adjectives  and  nouns  of  inclination  may  take  the  accusative 
with  in  or  erga:  as, 

comis  in  uxorem  (Hor.  Ep.  ii.  2),  kind  to  his  wife. 
divina  bonitas  erga  homines  (N.  D.  ii.  23),  the  divine  goodness 
to^vards  men. 

€•  The  following  may  take  also  the  possessive  genitive :  — 
aequalis,  affinis,  amicus,  cognatus,  communis,  consanguin- 
eus,  dispar,  familiaris,  inimicus,  necessarius,  par,  peculiaris, 
proprius,  superstes. 

REMARK.  —  After  similis,  like,  with  early  writers,  the  genitive 
is  more  usual ;  Cicero  uses  the  genitive  of  persons,  and  the  genitive 
or  dative  of  things. 

d*  The  following  take  the  accusative: — propior,  proximus 
(sometimes),  propius,  proximo  (more  commonly)  —  as  if  preposi- 
tions, like  prope. 

e*  Verbal  nouns  take  (rarely)  the  dative,  like  the  verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived :  as, 

invidia  consuli  (Sail.),  ill-will  against  the  consul. 
ministri  sceleribus  (Tac.),  servants  of  crime. 
obtemperatio  legibus  (Leg.  i.  15),  obedience  to  the  laws. 
sibi  ipsi  responsio  (De  Or.  iii.  54),  an  answer  to  himself. 

7.  Dative  of  Advantage*  The  dative  is  often  required 
not  by  any  particular  word,  but  by  the  general  meaning  of  the 
sentence  (dativus  commodi  et  incommodi). 

NOTE.  —  In  these  cases  there  may  be  only  one  word  in  the  sen- 
tence ;  but  they  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  is  complete  without  the  dative,  while  in  the  preceding  cases  it  is 
required  to  complete  the  sense  of  some  particular  word. 

ttibi  aras  (PI.  Merc.  i.  i),  you  plough  for  yourself . 
non  solum  nobis  divites  esse  volumus  sed  liberis  (Off.  iii.  15), 
it  is  not  for  ourselves  alone  but  for  our  children   that  we 
would  be  rich. 

res  tuas  tibi  babe  (formula  of  divorce),  keep  your  goods. 
laudavit  mihi  fratrem,  he  praised  my  brother  [out  of  regard  for 
me;  laudavit  fratrem  meum  would  imply  no  such  motive]. 
6* 


130  CONSTRUCTION   OF    CASES.  [51:   7. 

a.  The  dative  of  advantage  is  often  used  instead  of  the  posses- 
sive genitive :  as, 

iter  Poenis  vel  corporibus  suis  obstruere  (Cat.  M.  20),  to  block 
the  march  of  the  Carthaginians  even  -with  their  bodies. 

se  in  conspectum  nautis  dedit  (Verr.  vi.  33),  he  put  himself  in 
sight  of  the  sailors. 

versatur  mini  ante  oculos  (id.  47),  it  comes  before  my  eyes. 

fe.  The  dative  of  advantage  is  used  in  relations  of  direction, 
answering  to  the  English  as  you  go  in  (on  the  right,  in  the  front, 
&c.) :  as, 

oppidum   primum  Thessalise  venientibus  ab  Epiro  (B.  C.  iii. 

80),  the  [first  toivn  of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus. 
laeva  parte   sinum   intrantibus  (Liv.  xxxvi.  26),  on  the  left  as 

you  sail  up  the  gulf. 

€•  The  dative  of  advantage  is  used,  rarely  (by  a  Greek  idiom), 
with  the  participle  of  volo  or  nolo,  and  similar  words  :  as, 

g       ut  quibusque  bellum  invitis  aut  volentibus  erat  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  59), 

as  they  might  receive  the  'war  reluctantly  or  gladly. 
ut  militibus  labos  volentibus  esset  (Jug.  100),  that  the  soldiers 
might  assttme  the  task  willingly. 

d.  Ethical  Dative.  The  dative  of  the  personal  pronouns  is 
used  to  show  a  certain  interest  felt  by  the  person  referred  to 
(dativus  etliicus :  compare  * '  I'll  rhyme  you  so  eight  years  to- 
gether.1"—  As  you  Like  it.)  :  as, 

quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  (Hor.),  pray  -what  is  Celsus  doing? 

at  tibi  repente  ve'nit  mihi  Cominius  (F.  ix.  2),  but,  look  yoti, 

of  a  sudden  comes  to  me  Cominius. 
hem   tibi  talentum   argenti  (PI.  Trin.  v.  i),  hark  ye,  a  talent 

of  silver. 

quid  tibi  vis?  'what 'would  you  have ? 
avaritia  senilis  quid  sibi  velit  non  intelligo  (Cat.  M.  18),  I  do 

not  understand  'what  an  old  man's  avarice  means. 

REMARK.  —  To  express  FOR  —  meaning  instead  of,  in  defence 
of,  in  behalf  of — the  ablative  with  pro  must  be  used,  not  the 
dative :  as, 

pro  patria  mori  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  2),  to  die  for  one's  country. 
pro  rege,  lege,  grege  (prov.),  for  king,  la-w,  people. 
ego  ibo  pro  te  (PI.  Most.),  I  'will  go  instead  of  you. 
non  pro  me  sed  contra  me  (De  Or.  iii.  20),  not  for  me  but 
against  me. 


52:  I.]  ACCUSATIVE.  131 


52.    ACCUSATIVE. 

The  Accusative  denotes  that  which  is  immediately 
affected  by  the  action  of  a  verb  (Direct  Object). 

1.  General  Use.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the 
direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb :  as, 

legationem  suscepit,  he  undertook  the  embassy. 
Caesar  vicit  Fompeium,  Ccesar  conquered  Pompey. 

REMARK.  —  The  Object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice 
becomes  its  Subject  in  the  Passive,  and  is  put  in  the  nomi- 
native :  as, 

legatio  suscipitur,  the  embassy  is  undertaken. 

Pompeius  a  Caesare  victus  est,  Pompey  was  overcome  by  Ccesar. 

a.  Many  verbs  which  express  Feeling,  apparently  intransitive, 
may  take  an  accusative  in  Latin :  as, 

fidem  supplicis  erubuit   (Virg.),  he  respected  [blushed  at]  the 

faith  of  a  suppliant. 

flebat  mortuos  vivosque,  he  -wept  the  dead  and  living. 
meum  casum  luctumque  doluerunt  (Sest.69),  they  grieved  [at] 

my  calamity  and  sorrow. 
horreo  conscientiam  (Fin.  i.  16),  I  shudder  at  conscience. 

Such  verbs  may  accordingly  be  used  in  the  passive  :  as, 

ridetur  ab  omni  conventu   (Hor.),  he  is  laughed  [at]  by  the 
whole  assembly. 

b.  Cognate  Accusative.     A  neuter  verb  often  takes  an  ac- 
cusative of  kindred  meaning  (almost  always  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, or  in  some  other  manner)  :   as, 

vivere  earn  vitam  (Cic.),  to  live  that  kind  of  life. 
setatem  tertiam  vivebat,  he  -was  living  his  third  age. 

Similarly,  in  such  phrases  as  vincere  judicium,  to  gain  one's 
case  at  court,  and  in  poetic  use  :  as, 

saltare  Cyclopa  (Hor.  Sat.  v.  i),  to  dance  the  Cyclops. 
Bacchanalia  vivere  (Juv.  ii.  2),  to  live  in  revels. 

c*  Verbs  of  taste,  smell,  &c.,  take  an  accusative  of  the  qual- 
ity: as, 

vinum  redolens  (Cic.),  smelling  of  wine. 

herbam  mella  sapiunt  (Plin.),  the  honey  tastes  of  grass. 


132  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [52:    I,  2. 

d.  Verbs  of  motion,  and  a  few  others,  compounded  with  prep- 
ositions, especially  compounds  of  circum  and  trans,  frequently 
become  transitive,  and  take  the  accusative :  as, 

mortem  obire,  to  die. 

consulatum  ineunt  (Livy  iii.  6),  they  assume  the  consulship. 

neminem  conveni  (Fam.  ix.  14),  I  met  no  one. 

tectum  subire,  to  enter  [go  under]  a  place  of  shelter. 

colloquium  baud  abnuit  (Livy  xxx.  29),  he  did  not  refuse  the 
interview. 

si  insulam  adisset  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  if  he  should  go  to  the  island. 

cives  qui  circumstant  senatum  (Cat.  i.  8),  the  citizens  ivho 
throng  about  the  senate. 

e*  Construct!©  Praegnans.  The  accusative  is  used  in  certain 
phrases  constructively,  the  real  object  of  the  verb  being  something 
understood:  as, 

coire  societatem,  to  [go J together  and]  form  an  alliance. 

ferire  foedus,  to  strike  a  treaty  [i.e.  to  sanction  by  striking 
down  the  victim]. 

mare  navigare,  to  sail  the  sea  [i.e.  to  sail  a  ship  upon  the  sea]. 

/.  The  accusative  is  used  after  the  Impersonals  decet,  it  be- 
comes ;  delectat,  juvat,  it  delights ;  oportet,  it  behooves ;  fallit, 
it  deceives ;  fugit,  praeterit,  it  escapes:  as, 

te  non  praeteriit  (Fam.  i.  8),  it  has  not  escaped  your  notice. 
(For  Accusative  and  Genitive  after  Impersonals,  see  §  50,  4,  c.) 
2.  Two  Accusatives.     Several  classes  of  verbs,  besides 
the  direct  object,  take  another  accusative,  either  in  apposition 
or  as  a  secondary  object. 

a.  The  accusative  is  used  in  apposition  after  verbs  of  naming, 
choosing,  &c.  (See  §  46.) 

6.  A  second  accusative  is  sometimes  used  after  transitive  verbs 
compounded  with  prepositions  :  as, 

Hiberum  copias  trajecit   (Liv.  xxi.  23),    he  threw  his  forces 

across  the  Ebro. 
But  with  these  verbs  the  preposition  is  oftener  repeated. 

c*   Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  govern  two  accusatives,  either 
of  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  direct  object  of  the  action :  as, 
hoc  vos  doceo  (Cic.),  I  teach  you  this. 
hoc  te  vehementer  rogo  (id.),  this  I  urgently  beg  of  you. 

REMARK. — The  accusative  of  the  thing  may  remain,  in  this 
construction,  after  a  passive  :  as,  rogatus  sententiam ;  while  the 
person  will  be,  after  verbs  of  asking,  in  the  ablative  with  the  prep- 
osition ab  or  ex:  as,  hoc  a  te  rogatur.  The  preposition  is 


52:3,4-]  ACCUSATIVE.  133 

always  used,  to  denote  the  person  after  peto,  postulo    (ab), 
quaero  (ex  or  de)  :  as, 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petere  (Caes.),  to  beg  peace  of  the  Romans. 
d.  The  transitive  celo,  conceal,  and  the  usually  neuter  lateo, 
lie  hid,  take  the  accusative  of  the  person :  as, 

hoc  me  celavit,  he  hid  this  from  me.    f ''  «•     &*'A*  ^"~  ^ 
latet  plerosque  (Plin.),  it  ts  hid  from  most. 

3.  Adverbial  Accusative.     The  accusative  is  used  ad- 
verbially, or  for  specification.     This  is  found  — 

a.  With  many  verbs  usually  intransitive,  which  take  a  neuter 
pronoun  or  adjective  in  the  accusative:  as, 
quid  moror,  'why  do  I  delay  f 

pauca  milites  hortatus  (Sail.),  having  briefly  exhorted  the  men. 
dulce  loquentem  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22),  sweetly  speaking. 
acerba  tuens  (yEn.  ix.  793),  looking  cruelly. 
torvum  clamat  (id.  vii.  599),  he  cries  harshly. 
idem  gloriari,  to  boast  the  same  thing. 
NOTE.  —  Many  of.  these  are  cognate  accusative. 
b*   In  a  few  adverbial  phrases,  such  as  id  temporis,  at  that 
time ;  meam  vicem,  on  my  part ;  quod  si,  but  (as  to  which)  if. 

c*   In  the  so-called  synecdochical  or  Greek  accusative,  used  by 
the  poets  to  denote  the  part  affected :  as, 

caput  nectentur  (Virg.),  their  head  shall  be  bound  [they  shall 
be  bound  about  the  head]. 

The  part  is  strictly  in  apposition  with  the  whole,  and  remains  (as 
above)  after  the  passive. 

REMARK.  —  The  accusative  after  passive  verbs  used  reflexively 
is  sometimes  wrongly  referred  to  this  construction :  as, 

inutile  ferrum  cingitur  (Virg.),  he  girds  on  the  useless  steel. 

4.  Special   Uses.     Peculiar  uses  are  the  following :  — 

«•   The  accusative  is  used  in  Exclamations  :  as, 
O  fortunatam  rempublicam  (Cic.)j   O  fortunate  republic  I 
O  me  mi  serum  !  Ah  -wretched  me  ! 

5.  The  subject  of  the  Infinitive  Mood  is  in  the  accusative. 
This  is  especially  frequent  after  verbs  of  knowing,  thinking,  and 
telling  (verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  §  67,  i).     In  all  cases, 
the  accusative  is  strictly  the  Object  of  the  leading  verb. 

c*  Time  how  long,  and  Distance  how  far,  are  in  the  accusative. 
(See  §  55.) 

For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  §  56. 


134  CONSTRUCTION   OP   CASES.  [53;    54. 


53.     VOCATIVE. 

The  Vocative  is  the  form  of  direct  Address :  as, 

Tiberine  pater,  te  sancte  precor  (Liv.  ii.  103) ,  0  father  Tiber  ! 
thee,  holy  one,  I  pray. 

NOTE.  —  The  Vocative  can  hardly  be  called  a  case,  as  it  properly 
has  no  case  termination,  and  forms  no  part  of  the  sentence. 

a*   Sometimes  the  nominative  of  a  noun  is  used  instead  of  the 
vocative,  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  the  Imperative :  as, 
audi  tu,  populus  Albanus  (id.  i'.  24),  hear,  thou  people  of  Alba. 

&.   Sometimes  the  vocative  of  an  adjective  is  used  instead  of  the 
nominative,  where  the  verb  is  of  the  second  person :  as, 

censorem  trabeate  salutas  (Pers.)',  robed  you  salute  the  censor. 
So  in  the  phrase, 

macte  [=  magne,  root  MAG»]  virtute  esto  (Hor.),  be  enlarged 
in  manliness  [bravo,  well  done]. 


54.    ABLATIVE. 

The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  relations  ex- 
pressed in  English  by  the  prepositions  from,  in, 
at,  with,  by. 

NOTE.  —  The  Ablative  form  contains  three  distinct  cases,  —  the 
ablative  proper,  expressing  the  relation  FROM  ;  the  locative,  IN  ;  and 
the  instrumental,  WITH  or  BY.  This  confusion  has  arisen  partly 
from  phonetic  decay,  by  which  the  cases  have  become  identical  in 
form,  and  partly  from  the  development  by  which  they  have  ap- 
proached one  another  in  meaning.  Compare,  for  the  first,  the  like 
forms  of  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  the  old  dative  in  e  of  the  fifth 
declension,  and  the  loss  of  the  original  d  in  the  ablative  ;  and,  for  the 
second,  the  phrases  a  parte  dextra,  ON  the  right. ;  quam  ob  causam, 
FROM  which  cause;  ad  famam,  AT  (in  consequence  of)  the  report. 

The  relative  of  FROM  includes  separation,  source,  cause,  agent,  and 
comparison ;  that  of  IN  or  AT,  place,  time,  circumstance ;  that  of  WITH  or 
BY,  accompaniment,  instrunient,  means,  manner,  quality,  and  price.  It  is 
probable  that,  originally,  the  idea  of  accompaniment  had  a  separate  case, 
which  became  confounded  with  the  instrumental  before  the  Latin  was 
separated  from  the  kindred  tongues. 


54:    I.]  ABLATIVE.  135 

1.  Ablative  of  Separation*  Verbs  meaning  to  remove, 
set  free,  be  absent)  deprive,  and  want,  are  followed  by  the 
ablative :  as, 

levamur  superstitione,  liberamur  mortis  metu  (Fin.  i.  19),  ive 

are  relieved  from  superstition^  freed  from  fear  of  death. 
oculis  se  privavit  (id.  v.  29),  he  deprived  himself  of  eyes. 
consilio  et  auctoritate  orbari  (Cat.  M.  6),  to  be  bereft  of  counsel 

and  authority. 

legibus  solutus,  relieved  from  the  obligation  oflarvs. 
ea  philosophia  quse  spoliat  nos  judicio,  privat  approbatione, 

omnibus  orbat  sensibus  (Acad.  ii.  19),  that  philosophy  'which 

despoils  us  of  judgment ',  deprives  of  approval,  bereaves  of 

every  sense. 
omni  Gallia  interdicit  Romanos  (B.  G.  i.  46),  he  [Ariovistus] 

bars  the  Romans  from  the  'whole  of  Gaul. 
ei  aqua  et  igni  interdicitur   (Vail.  Pat.  ii.  45),   he  is  debarred 

the  use  oj  fire  and  'water. 
[cives]   calamitate  prohibere   (Manil.  7),  to  keep  the  citizens 

from  ruin. 

carere  febri  (Fam.  xvi.  16),  to  be  free  from  fever. 
voluptatibus  carere  (Cat.  M.  3),  to  lack  enjoyments. 
non  egeo  medicina  (Lsel.  3),  I  want  no  physic. 
magno  me  metu  liberabis   (Cat.  i.  5),  you  will  relieve  me  of 

great  fear. 
Ephorus  calcaribus  eget  (Quint.),  Ephorus  needs  the  spur. 

a.  Compounds  of  a,  ab,  de,  ex,  take  the  ablative  when  used 
figuratively ;  but  in  their  literal  meaning,  implying  motion,  they 
usually  follow  the  rules  of  place  from  which  (see  §  55,  3) :  as, 

conatu  desistere  (B.  G.  i.  8),  to  desist  from  the  attempt. 

exsolvere  se  occupationibus  (Fam.  vii.  i),  to  get  clear  of  occu- 
pation. 

prius  quam  ea  cura  decederet  patribus  (Liv.  ix.  29),  before  that 
anxiety  left  the  fathers. 

desine  communibus  locis  (Ac.  ii.  25),  quit  commonplaces. 

abire  magistratu,  to  leave  the  office. 

abscedere  incepto,  to  relinquish  the  undertaking. 

abstinere  injuria,  to  refrain  from  'wrong: 

exire  aere  alieno,  to  get  out  of  debt. 

b.  More  rarely,  the  ablative  is  used  after  verbs  without  a  prep- 
osition to  denote  the  place  from  which :  as, 

cessisset  patria  (Mil.  25),  he  -would  have  left  his  country. 
loco  movere  (Liv.  i.  35),  to  move  from  its  place. 
patria  pellere,  to  drive  out  of  the  country. 
Gallia  arcere  (Phil.  v.  13),  to  keep  out  of  Gaul. 
manu  mittere,  to  emancipate  [let  go  from  the  hand]. 


136  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [54:  I,  2. 

c.  Adjectives  denoting  freedom  and  want  are  followed  by  the 
ablative :  as, 

liber  cura  et  angore  (Fin.  i.  15),  free  from  care  and  anguish. 

vacuos  curis  (ib.  ii.  14),  void  of  care. 

urbs  nuda  prsesidio  (Att.  vii.  13),  the  city  naked  of  defence. 

immunis  militia  (Liv.  i.  43),  free  of  military  service. 

plebs  orba  tribunis  (Leg.  iii.  3),  the  people  deprived  of  tribunes. 

d.  Opus  and  usus  signifying  need  (with  esse)  are  followed 
by  the  ablative  (often  by  the  ablative  of  the  perfect  participle,  with 
or  without  a  noun) :  as, 

magistratibus  opus  est  (Leg.  iii.  2),  there  is  need  of  magistrates. 
curatore  usus  est  (id.  4,  —  chiefly  ante-classical),  there  is  need 

of  a  manager. 

properato  opus  esset  (Mil.  19),  there  were  need  of  haste. 
ut  opu'st  facto  (Ter.  Heaut.),  as  there  is  need  to  do. 

REMARK.  —  The  nominative  is  often  used  with  opus  in  the 
predicate :  as, 

multi  opus  sunt  boves  (Varro  R.  R.  i.  18),  there  is  need  of  many 

cattle. 
dux  nobis  et  auctor  opus  est  (Fam.  ii.  6),  we  need  a  chief  and 

adviser. 

e.  Egeo  and  indigeo  are  often  followed  by  the  genitive  :  as, 

ne  quis  auxili    egeat  (B.  G.  vi.  n),  lest  any  require  aid. 

qua?  ad  consolandum  majoris  ingeni  et  ad  ferendum  singularis 
virtutis  indigent  (Fam.  vi.  4),  [sorrows]  which  for  comfort 
need  more  ability,  and  for  endurance  unusual  courage. 

REMARK. — With  all  words  of  separation  and  want,  the  poets 
frequently,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  use  the  genitive  (see  §  50,  3,  c) :  as, 

desine  mollium  tandem  querelarum  (Hor.  Od.  ii.  9),  cease  at 

length  from  weak  complaints. 

abstineto  irarum  (id.  iii.  27),  abstain  from  wrath. 
operum  solutis  (id.  17),  free  from  toils. 

2.  Ablative  of  Source*  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote 
the  source  from  which  anything  is  derived,  or  the  material 
of  which  it  consists. 

a.   Participles  denoting  birth  or  origin  are  followed  by  the  > 
ablative.      Such  participles  are  natus,  satus,  editus,   genitusf 
ortus :  as, 

Jove  natus  et  Maia  (N.  D.  iii.  22),  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia. 
ortus  equestri  loco  (Leg.  Agr.  i.  9),  born  of  equestrian  rank. 
edite  regibus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  i),  descendant  of  kings. 
quo  sanguine  cretus  (^En.  ii.  74),  born  of  what  blood. 


54:    2,  3-]  ABLATIVE.  137 

REMARK. — A  preposition  (ab,  de,  ex)  is  usually  expressed 
with  the  name  of  the  mother,  and  with  that  of  distant  ancestors. 

b.  Rarely,  the  place  of  birth  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  :  as, 

desideravit  C.  Felginatem  Placentia,  A.  Granium  Puteolis 
(B.  C.  iii.  71),  he  lost  C.  F.  of  Placentia,  A.  G.  of  Puteoli. 

C.  The  ablative  is  used  with  constare  and  similar  verbs,  to 
denote  material  (but  with  other  verbs  a  preposition  is  generally 
used,  except  by  the  poets) :  as, 

animo  constamus  et  corpore  (Fin.  iv.  8),  ive  consist  of  soul  and 
body. 

NOTE.  —  The  ablative  with  consistere  and  contineri  is  locative 
(see  below,  10). 

d.  The  ablative  of  material  is  used  with  facere,  fieri,  and 
similar  words:  as, 

quid  hoc  homine  facias  (Verr.  ii.  16),  What  are  you  going  to 

do  tvitk  this  man  ? 
quid  Tulliola  mea  fiet  (Fam.  xiv.  4),  ivhat  -will  become  of  my 

dear  Tullia  ? 
quid  te  futurum  est  (Verr.  ii.  64),  what  -will  happen  to  you  ? 

3.  Ablative  of  Cause.  The  ablative  (with  or  without  a 
preposition)  is  used  to  express  the  cause. 

NOTE.  —  The  cause,  in  the  Ablative,  is  considered  as  source ,  as  is 
shown  by  the  use  of  ab,  de,  ex ;  while  with  ad,  ob,  the  idea  of  cause 
arises  from  nearness.  But  occasionally  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween cause  and  means  (which  is  instrumental)  or  circumstance  (either 
locative  or  instrumental). 

nimio  gaudio  paene  desipiebam   (Fam.  i.  13),  I -was  almost  a 

fool  -with  excess  of  joy. 

negligentia  plectimur  (Lsel.  22),  -we  are  chastised  for  negligence. 
csecus  avaritia  (Liv.  v.  51),  blind -with  avarice. 
gubernatoris  ars  utilitate  non  arte  laudatur  (Fam.  i.  13),  tlie 

pilofs  skill  is  praised  as  service  not  as  skill. 

a.  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  adjectives  dignus,  indignus, 
and  with  the  verbs  dignor,  laboro  (also  with  ex),  exsilio, 
exsulto,  triumpho,  lacrimo,  ardeo. 

vir  patre,  avo,  majoribus  suis  dignissimus  (Phil.  iii.  10),  a  man 
most /worthy  of  his  father,  grandfather,  and  ancestors. 

doleo  te  aliis  malis  laborare  (Fam.  iv.  3),  I  am  sorry  that  you 
suffer  with  other  ills. 

ex  aere  alieno  laborare  (B.  C.  iii.  22),  to  labor  under  debt. 

exsultare  lEetiti&  ac  triumphare  gaudio  coepit  (Clu.  5),  she 
began  to  exult  in  gladness,  and  triumph  in  joy. 


138  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [54:   3,  4>  5- 

&•  The  motive  which  influences  the  mind  of  the  person  acting 
is  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone ;  the  object  exciting  the  emotion 
often  by  ob  or  propter  with  the  accusative :  as, 

non  ob  praedam  aut  spoliandi  cupidine  (Tac.  H.  i.  63),  not  for 
booty  or  through  lust  of  plunder. 

c.  The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia,  for  the  sake  of,  are  used 
with  a  genitive  preceding,  or  with  a  possessive  in  agreement :  as, 

ea  causa,  on  account  of  this]  me&  causa,  for  my  sake. 

et  ipsorum  et  reipublicae  causa  (Manil.  2),  for  their  own  sake 

and  the  republic's. 
sui  purgandi  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  clearing  themselves. 

With  possessives  the  use  of  gratia  in  this  sense  is  rare. 

.4.  Ablative  of  Agent*  The  voluntary  agent  after  a  pas- 
sive verb  is  put  in  the  ablative  with  ab  (see  §  56,  4)  :  as, 

laudatur  ab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2),  he  is  praised 
by  these,  blamed  by  those. 

ab  animo  tuo  quidquid  agitur  id  agitur  a  te  (Tusc.i.  22),  what- 
ever is  done  by  your  soul  is  done  by  yourself. 

a.  This  construction  is  sometimes  used  after  neuter  verbs  hav- 
ing a  passive  sense :  as, 

perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  an  enemy. 

6.  The  agent,  considered  as  instrument  or  means,  is  expressed 
by  per  with  the  accusative,  or  by  opera  with  a  genitive  or  posses- 
sive :  as, 

per  Antiochum  (Liv.),  by  means  of  Antiochus. 
mea  opera  (Cic.),  by  my  means. 

So  per  vim,  as  well  as  vi  (B.  G.  i.  14),  by  force. 

5.  Ablative  of  Comparison.  The  Comparative  degree 
is  followed  by  the  ablative  (signifying  THAN)  :  as, 

quis  me  beatior  (Tusc.  i.  4),  'who  more  blest  than  If 

quid  nobis  duobus  laboriosius  est  (Mil.  2),  -what  more  burdened 

than  uue  two  f 

NOTE.  —  Here  the  object  of  comparison  is  the  starting-point  from 
which  we  reckon,  as  itself  possessing  the  quality  in  some  degree.  That 
this  is  the  true  explanation  is  shown  by  the  ablative  in  Sanskrit,  and 
the  genitive  in  Greek. 

a.  Quam  with  the  same  case  as  the  adjective  may  also  be  used, 
and  must  regularly  be  used  when  the  adjective  is  not  either  nomi- 
native or  accusative.  But  the  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative 
even  then :  as, 


54:  5,  6.]  ABLATIVE.  139 

pane  egeo  jam  mellitis  potiore  placentis  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  10),  I -want 
bread  better  than  honey-cakes. 

REMARK.  —  Quam  is  never  used  in  this  construction  with  rela- 
tive pronouns  having  a  definite  antecedent. 

&•  Particularly  the  idiomatic  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  solito, 
dicto,  aequo,  credibili,  and  justo,  are  used  instead  of  a  clause  :  as, 

celerius  opinione  (Fam.  iv.  23),  faster  than  one  would  think. 
amnis  solito  citatior  (Liv.  xxii.  19),  a  stream  swifter  than  its 
wont. 

€•  Plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius,  are  often  used  with  words 
of  measure  or  numbe'r  without  affecting  their  case  (being  in  a  kind 
of  apposition)  :  as,  *  *"'«  '^—  ^^U^ 

plus  septingenti  capti  (Liv.  xli.  12),  more  than  700  were  taken. 

plus  tertia  parte  interfecta  (Cses.),  more  than  a  third  part  being 
slain. 

spatium  non  amplius  sexcentorum  pedum  (id.),  a  space  of  not 
more  than  600  feet. 

NOTE.  —  Alius  is  used  by  the  poets  with  the  ablative,  perhaps  in 
imitation  of  the  Greek ;  but  the  construction  is  found  also  in  Sanskrit, 
and  is  probably  original :  as,  alium  sapienti  bonoque  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  16). 
Under  comparatives  belong  the  adverbs  antea,  antidea,  postilla, 
postea,  praeterea,  earlier  than  this,  &c.  (see  §  56,  3). 

[For  Ablative  of  Difference,  see  below,  6,  e.~\ 

6.  Ablative  of  Means.  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote 
accompaniment,  means,  or  instrument :  as, 

vultu  Milonis  perterritus  (Mil.  15),  scared  by  the  face  of  Milo. 
animum  appellat  novo  nomine  (Tusc.  i.  10),  he  calls  the  mind 

by  a  new  name. 
probabilia  conjectura  sequens   (id.  9),  following- probabilities 

by  conjecture. 

excultus  doctrina  (id.  2),  thoroughly  trained  in  learning. 
fidibus  canere  (id.),  to  sing  to  the  lyre. 
Fauno  immolare  agn&  (Hor.  Od.  i.  4),  to  sacrifice  to  Faunus 

with  a  ewe-lamb. 
pol  pudere  quam  pigere  przestat  totidem  literis  (Plant.  Trin. 

345),  by  Pollux  better  shame  than  blame,  although  the  letters 

count  the  same  [lit.  with  as  many  letters]. 

a.  The  ablative  of  accompaniment  regularly  takes  cum  (except 
sometimes  in  military  phrases,  and  a  few  isolated  expressions, 
especially  in  the  early  writers) :  as, 

cum  funditoribus  sagittariisque  flumen  transgressi    (B.  G.  ii. 

19),  having  crossed  the  river  with  the  slingers  and  archers. 
subsequebatur  omnibus  copiis  (ib.),  ne  followed  close  with  all 
his  forces.  [out. 

\    hoc  prsesidio  profectus  est  (Verr.  ii.  34),  with  this  convoy  he  set 


140  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [54:    6. 

REMARK.  —  Misceo  and  jungo,  with  their  compounds,  may 
take  the  ablative  of  accompaniment,  without  cum,  or  sometimes 
the  dative. 

&.  Words  of  contention,  require  cum  (but  often  take  the  dative 
in  poetry) :  as, 

armis  cum  hoste  certare  (Cic.),  to  fight  -with  the  enemy  in  arms. 
est  rnihi  tecum  certamen  (id.),  I  have  a  controversy  with  you. 
solus  tibicertat  Amyntas  (Eel.  v.§},Amyntas  alone  vies  with  you. 

c.  The  ablative  of  means  is  used  with  words  of  filling,  abound- 
ing, and  the  like  :  as, 

Deus  bonis  omnibus  explevit  mundum  (Univ.  3),  God  has  filled 

the  world  ^vith  all  good  things. 

dialecticis  imbutus  (Tusc.  i.  7),  tinctured  with  logic. 
circumfusi  caligine  (id.  19),  overspread  with  darkness. 
opimus  prseda  (Verr.  i.  50),  rich  with  spoil. 
vita  plena  et  conferta  voluptatibus  (Sext.  10),  a  life  full  and 

crowded  with  delights. 
Forum  Appi  differtum   nautis   (Hor.  Sat.  i.  5),  Fortim  Appii 

crammed  with  bargemen. 

REMARK.  —  These  verbs  and  adjectives  take  the  genitive  in  the 
poets  by  a  Greek  idiom :  as, 

terra   scatet  ferarum   (Lucr.  v.  41),   the  land  abounds  in  wild 

creatures. 
explere  ultricis  flammse  (^En.  ii.  586),  fill  with  avenging  flame. 

Compleo,  impleo,  and  plenus,  often  take  the  genitive  in  prose. 

d*  The  deponents  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  with 
several  of  their  compounds,  govern  the  ablative :  as, 

utar  vestra  benignitate   (Cic.),    /  will  avail  myself  of  your 

kindness. 
Numidae  plerumque  lacte  et  ferin&carne  vescebantur  (Jug.  88), 

the  Numidiansfed  mostly  on  milk  and  game. 

Potior  also  takes  the  genitive,  as  always  in  the  phrase  potiri 
rerum,  to  get  the  power.  In  early  Latin,  the  accusative  is 
sometimes  found  with  these  verbs. 

e.  The  ablative  is  used  with  comparatives  and  words  implying 
comparison,  to  denote  the  degree  of  difference :  as, 

duobus  milibus  plures,  more  numerous  by  2000. 

quinque  milibus  passuum  distat  (Liv.),  it  is  five  miles  distant. 

REMARKS. — This  use  is  especially  frequent  with  the  ablatives 
eo  .  .  .  quo ;  quanto  .  . .  tanto  (see  §  22,  c)  :  as, 

quo  minus  cupiditatis  eo  plus  auctoritatis  (Liv.  xxiv.  28),  the 
less  greed  the  more  weight. 


54:  7,  8.]  ABLATIVE.  141 

*7.  Ablative  of  Quality.  The  ablative  is  used,  with  an 
adjective  or  limiting  genitive,  to  denote  manner  and  quality:  as, 

animo  meliore,  of  better  mind. 
more  hominum,  after  the  manner  of  men. 

non  quaere  quanta  memoria  fuisse  dicatur  (Tusc.  i.  24),  I  do 
not  ask  how  great  a  memory  he  is  said  to  have  had. 

O»  The  ablative  of  description  (with  adjectives)  is  always  used 
to  denote  physical  characteristics  (other  qualities  may  be  in  the 
genitive) :  as, 

vultu  sereno,  of  calm  face. 

capillo  sunt  promisso  (B.  G.  v.  14),  they  have  long  hanging  locks. 

b*  The  ablative  of  manner  more  commonly  takes  cum,  unless  it 
has  a  modifying  adjective  :  as, 

minus  cum  cura  (Plaut.),  less  carefully. 

hoc  onus  feram  studio  et  industria  (Rose.  Am.  4),  I  'will  bear 
this  burden  with  pains  and  diligence. 

But  words  of  manner,  modo,  ratione,  via,  &c.  —  with  such  ex- 
pressions as  silentio,  in  silence,  injuria,  wrongfully  —  hardly  ever 
have  cum. 

8.  Ablative  of  Price.  The  price  of  a  thing  (or  that 
which  is  given  in  exchange)  is  put  in  the  ablative :  as, 

agrum  vendidit  sestertium  sex  milibus,  he  sold  the  field  for 

6000  sesterces. 
exsilium   patria  sede  mutavit  (Q^C.  iii.  8),  he  exchanged  his 

native  land  for  exile. 

a*  Certain  genitives  of  Quantity  are  used  to  denote  indefinite 
value.  Such  genitives  are  magiii,  parvi,  tanti,  quanti,  pluris, 
minoris:  as, 

est  mihi  tanti  (Cat.  ii-  7),  //  is  worth  my  -while. 
mea  magni  interest,  it  is  of  great  consequence  to  me. 

REMARK. — With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  the  ablative  of 
price  (magno,  &c.)  must  be  used,  except  the  following  genitives  : 
tanti,  quanti,  pluris,  minoris. 

&•   The  genitive  of  certain  nouns  is  used  in  the  same  way :  as, 
non  flocci  faciunt  (PI.  Trin.),  they  care  not  a  straw. 

The  genitives  so  used  are  nihili,  nothing ;  assis,  a  farthing ; 
flocci,  a  lock  of  wool,  and  a  few  others  (see  §  50,  i,  i). 

[For  the  Ablative  of  Penalty,  see  §  50,  4,  b,  Rem.] 


142  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [54:  9,  Ip. 

9.  Ablative  of  Specification.      The   ablative   denotes 
that  in  respect  to  which  anything  is  said  to  be  or  be  done,  or 
in  accordance  with  which  anything  happens :  as, 

virtute  praecedunt  (B.  G.  i.  i),  they  excel  in  courage. 

incluta  bello  mcenia  (^En.  ii.  24),  ^v alls  famous  in  -war. 

claudus  altero  pede  (Nep.  Ages.),  lame  of  one  foot. 

lingua  hsesitantes,  voce  absoni  (DeOr.  i.),  hesitating  in  speech, 
harsh  in  voice. 

tanta  caritas  patriae  est,  ut  earn  non  sensu  nostro  sed  salute 
ipsius  metiamur  (Tusc.  i.  37),  such  is  our  love  of  country,  that 
•we  measure  it  not  by  our  own  feeling^  but  by  her  oivn  welfare. 

10.  Locative  Ablative.     The   ablative   of    the-  place 
where  is  retained  in  many  figurative  expressions :  as, 

jure  peritus,  skilled  in  law  [compare  Sanskrit  usages]. 
pendemus  animis  (Tusc.  i.  40),  we  are  in  suspense  of  mind. 
socius   periculis   vobiscum   adero   (Jug.  85),   I -will  be  present 

with  you  a  companion  in  dangers. 
premit  alto   corde   dolorem  (JEn.  i.  209),  he    keeps  down  the 

pain  deep  in  his  heart. 

conferta.  legione  (B.  G.  iv.  33),  as  they  were  in  close  order. 
pedibus  prceliantur  (id.  34),  they  jight  on  foot. 
quibus  rebus  (id.  35),  under  these  circumstances. 

d*  The  verbs  acquiesce,  delector,  laetor,  gaudeo,  glorior, 
nitor,  sto,  maneo,  fido  (confido),  consisto,  contiiieor,  —  with 
the  verbals  fretus,  contentus,  laetus,  —  are  followed  by  the 
ablative :  as, 

spe  niti  (Att.  iii.  9),  to  rely  on  hope. 

prudentia  fidens  (Off.  i.  33),  trusting  in  prudence. 

Isetari  bonis  rebus  (Lsel.  13),  to  rejoice  in  good  things. 

REMARK.  —  The  above  verbs  also  take  the  preposition  in. 

&.  Ablative  Absolute.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  parti- 
ciple, is  put  in  the  ablative,  to  define  the  time  or  circumstances  of 
an  action  (compare  §  72).  An  adjective,  or  another  noun,  may 
take  the  place  of  the  participle. 

vocatis  ad  se  undique  mercatoribus  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  having  called 

to  him  the  traders  from  all  quarters. 
exigud  parte  aestatis  reliqua  (id.),  when  but  a  small  part  of  the 

summer  was  left. 
M.  Messal&  et  M.  Pisone  consulibus  (id.  i.  2),  in  the  consulship 

of  Messala  and  Piso. 

NOTE.  —  In  this  use  the  noun  is  equivalent  to  the  Subject,  and  the 
participle  to  the  Predicate,  of  a  subordinate  clause ;  and  so  they  should 


54:  10 ;    55.]  TIME  AND  PLACE.  143 

generally  be  translated.  But,  as  the  copula  esse  has  no  participle  in 
Latin,  a  noun  or  adjective  is  often  found  alone  as  predicate,  while  the 
participle  is  found,  in  this  construction,  in  Sanskrit  and  Greek.  The 
noun  originally  denotes  circumstance,  considered  as  place  or  time  (loca- 
tive) ;  then,  being  modified  by  a  participle,  it  becomes  fused  with  it 
into  a  single  idea,  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  a  subordinate  clause 
(compare  ab  urbe  coiidita,  lit,  from  the  city  built). 

€•  Sometimes  a  participle  or  adjective  (under  the  construction 
of  the  ablative  absolute)  is  put  in  agreement  with  a  phrase  or 
clause,  or  is  used  adverbially  :  as, 

incerto  quid  peterent,  since  it  was  uncertain  what  they  sought. 
auspicate  (Tac.  H.  i.  84),  after  taking  the  auspices  [the  auspices 

having  been  taken], 
consulto  et  cogitato  (Off  i.  8),  on  purpose  and  with  reflection 

[the  matter  having  been  deliberated  and  thought  on], 
sereno  (Liv.  xxxi.  12),  under  a  clear  sky. 

d*  The  ablative  is  often  used  to  denote  the  place  where,  of*the 
time  when  (see  §  55,  i  ;  3,./). 

[For  the  government  of  the  Ablative  by  Prepositions,  see  §  56.] 


55.     TIME  AND  PLACE. 

1.   Time.     Time  when  (or  within  which)  is  put  in  the 
Ablative ;  time  how  long  the  Accusative  :  as, 

constituta  die,  on  the  set  day. 

quota  bora  ?  at  -what  o'clock  ? 

tribus  proxumis  annis  (Jug.  n),  within  the  last  three  years. 

dies  continues  triginta,  for  a  month  together. 

paucis  post  diebus   (or  paucos  post  dies),  after  a  few  days. 

[Here  diebus   is  the  ablative  of  difference  (§  54,  6,   e),  and 

post  an  adverb  (§  56,  2,  d}.~\ 

NOTE.  —  The  ablative  of  time  is  locative ;  the  accusative  is  the  same 
as  that  of  extent  of  space  (see  below),  heri  vespari). 

(t»  The  use  of  a  preposition  gives  greater  precision  and  clear- 
ness :  as, 

in  diebus  proximis  decem  (Sail.),  ^vithin  the  next  ten  days. 
'    ludi  per  decem  dies  (Cat.  iii.  8),  games  lasting  ten  days. 

b.    The  ablative  is  rarely  used  to  express  duration  of  time  :  as, 

milites  quinque  horis  proelium  sustinuerant  (B.  C.  i.  47),  the 
men  had  sustained  the  fight  five  hours.    [This  use  is  locative.] 


144  CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASES.  [55:  2,  3. 

2.  Space.     Extent  of  space  is  put  in  the  Accusative :  as, 

fossas  quindecim  pedes   latas   (B.  G.  vii.  72),   trenches  13  feet 
broad. 

NOTE.  —  This  accusative  is  the  object  through  or  over  which  the 
action  takes  place,  and  is  kindred  with  the  accusative  of  the  end  of 
motion . 

a.  Measure  is  often  expressed  as  a  quality  by  the  Genitive 
(§  50,  i,  h)  :  as, 

vallo  peduni  duodecim  (B.  G.  ii.  30),   in  a  rampart  of  12  feet 
[in  height]. 

b.  Distance  is  put  in  the  Accusative  (as  extent  of  space),  or 
Ablative  (as  degree  of  difference)  :  as, 

quinque  dierum  iter  abest  (Liv.  xxx.  29),  it  is  distant  Jive  days' 

march. 
triginta  milibus  passuum  infra  eum  locum  (B.  G.vi-35),  thirty 

miles  below  that  place- 
tanto  spatio  secuti  (B.  G.  iv.  35),  having  followed  over  so  much 

ground. 

3.  Place.     To  express  relations  of  Place,  prepositions 
are  necessary,  except  with  the  names  of  Towns  and  small 
Islands ;  except  also  with  domus,  rus,  and  a  tew  other  words 
in  special  relations. 

NOTE.  —  Originally  these  relations  were  expressed  with  all  words 
by  the  cases  alone,  —  the  Accusative  denoting  the  end  of  motion  as  in 
a  certain  sense  the  object  of  the  action  ;  and  the  Ablative  (in  its  proper 
meaning  of  separation)  denoting  the  place  from  which.  For  the  place 
where  there  was  a  special  case,  the  Locative,  the  form  of  which  was 
partially  retained  and  partially  merged  in  the  Ablative  (see  Note, 
p.  134).  The  Prepositions  (originally  Adverbs)  were  added  to  define 
more  exactly  the  direction  of  the  motion,  and  by  long  usage  at  length 
became  necessary,  except  in  the  cases  given  above. 

ct*   The  name  of  the  place  from  which  is  in  the  Ablative :  as, 

Rom£  profectus,  having  set  out  from  Rome. 
rure  re  versus,  having  returned  from  the  country. 

b.   The  name  of  the  place  to  which  is  in  the  Accusative :  as, 

Rom  am  red  i  it,  he  returned  to  Rome. 
rus  ibo,  I  shall  go  into  the  country. 

REMARK.  —  The  old  construction  is  retained  in  the  phrases 
exsequias  ire,  to  attend  a  funeral:!  infitias  ire,  to  make  denial; 
pessum  ire,  to  go  to  ruin ;  pessum  dare,  to  undo ;  venum  dare 
(vendere),  to  set  to  sale ;  venum  ire,  to  be  set  to  sale;  foras,  out 
of  doors ;  and  the  Supine  in  urn  (see  §  74,  i). 


55  :  3,  4-]  TIME    AND    PLACE.  145 

c.  The  name  of  the  place  where  takes  the  Locative  form,  which 
in  the  first  and  second  declensions  singular  is  the  same  as  the 
genitive ;  in  the  plural,  and  in  the  third  declension,  the  same  as  the 
dative:  as, 

Romae,  at  Rome;  Corinthi,  at  Corinth ;  Lanuvi,  at  Lanuvium  ; 
Karthagini,  at  Carthage;  Athenis,  at  Athens;  Curibus, 
at  Cures. 

REMARK.  —  In  names  of  the  third  declension  the  ablative  is 
often  found,  especially  where  the  metre  requires  it  in  poetry :  as, 

Tibure  vel  Gabiis  (Hor.  Ep.  ii.  2),  at  Tibur  or  Galii. 

d.  The  words  domi  (rarely  domui) ,  at  home  ;  belli,  militiae 
(in  contrast  to  domi) ,  abroad  in  military  service ;  humi,  on  the 
ground;  ruri,  in  the  country ;  foris,  out-of-doors;  terra  marique, 
by  land  and  sea,  are  used  like  names  of  towns,  without  a  prep- 
osition; alsoheri,  vesperi,  infelici  arbori  (Liv.). 

e.  A  possessive,  or  alienus,  may  be  used  with  domus  in  this 
construction ;  but  when  it  is  modified  in  any  other  way,  a  preposi- 
tion is  generally  used  :  as, 

domi  suse  (Mil.  7),  at  his  own  house. 

in  M.  Laecae  domum  (Cat.  i.  4),  to  Lcecd's  house. 

f.  The   ablative  is  used  without  a  preposition  to  denote  the 
place  where,  in   many  general  words  —  as   loco,   parte  —  regu- 
larly;  frequently  with  nouns  when  qualified  by  adjectives    (reg- 
ularly where  totus  is  used)  ;   and  in  poetry  in  any  case:  as, 

quibus  loco  positis  (De  Or.  iii.  38),  when  these  aye  put  in  their 

places. 
qua  parte  victi  erant  (Att.  ix.  n),  on  the  side  where  they  were 

beaten. 

se  oppido  tenet  (id.),  keeps  himself  within  the  town. 
media  urbe  (Liv.  i.  33),  in  the  midst  of  the  city. 
tota  Sicilia  (Verr.  iv.  23),  throughout  Sicily. 
litore  curvo  (^En.  iii.  16),  on  the  bending  shore. 

REMARK.  —  To  denote  the  neighborhood  of  a  place  (to,  from, 
in  the  neighborhood),  prepositions  must  be  used. 

4.    The  way  by  which  is  put  in  the  Ablative  (of  instru- 
ment) :  as, 

via  breviore  equites  praemisi  (Fam.  x.  9),  /  sent  forward  f  he 
cavalry  by  a  shorter  road. 

mari  trajecit  (Liv.  xxxvii.  14),  he  crossed  by  way  of  the 


146  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES.  [56:  I. 

56.     USB  OP  PREPOSITIONS. 

1.   Prepositions  govern  either  the  Accusative  or  Ablative. 

a.  The  following  govern  the  Accusative :  —  ad,  adversus,  ad- 
versum,  ante,  apud,  circa,  or  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citra,  con- 
tra, erga,  extra,  infra,   inter,   iiitra,  juxta,   ob,  penes,    per, 
pone,    post,    praeter,     prope,     propter,    secundum,    supra, 
trans,  ultra,  versus. 

b.  The  following  govern  the  Ablative :  —  a,  ab,  abs,  absque, 
coram,  cum,  de,  e,  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,  tenus. 

c»  In  and  sub  take  the  Accusative  when  they  denote  motion ; 
when  rest,  the  Ablative  :  as; 

in  contionem  venit  (Off.  iii.  n),  he  came  into  the  meeting. 
dixit  in  contione  (ib.),  he  said  in  the  meeting. 
sub  jugum  mittere  (Cses.),  to  send  under  the  yoke. 
sub  mbnte  consedit  (id.),  he  halted  below  the  hill. 

REMARK.  — The  verbs  of  placing,  —  such  as  pono  and  its  com- 
pounds (except  impono),  loco,  statuo,  &c.,  —  though  implying 
motion,  take  in  Latin  the  construction  of  the  place  in  which :  as, 

qui  in  sede  ac  domo  collocavit  (Parad.  iii.  2),  who  put  one 
into  his  place  and  home. 

d.  When  it  means  concerning,  super  takes  the  Ablative ;  other- 
wise the  Accusative  (unless  in  poetry) :  as, 

hac  super  re  (Cic.),  concerning  this  thing. 
super  culmina  tecti  (Virg.),  above  the  house-top. 

e.  After  subter,  the  Accusative  is  used,  except  sometimes  in 
poetry :  as, 

subter  togam  (Liv.),  under  his  mantle. 
subter  litore  (Catull.),  below  the  shore, 

f.  In  Dates,  the  phrase  ante   diem  (a.  d.)  with  an  ordinal, 
or  the  ordinal  alone,  is  followed  by  an  accusative,  like  a  preposi- 
tion ;  and  the  phrase  itself  may  be  governed  by  a  preposition :  as, 

is  dies  erat  a.d.  quintum  kalendas  AprilTs  (B.  G.  i.  6),  that  day 
-was  the  $th  before  the  calends  of  April  [March  28]. 

in  a.d.  v.  kal.  Nov.  (Cat.  i.  3),  to  the  $th  day  before  the  calends 
of  November  [Oct.  28]. 

xv.  kal.  SextilTs,  the  i$th  day  before  the  calends  of  August 
(July  18).  [Full  form,  quinto  die  ante.'} 

g.  Tenus  (which  follows  its  noun)  regularly  takes  the  Abla- 
tive :  as, 

Tauro  tenus  (Mil.  13),  as  far  as  Taurus. 
capulo  tenus  (JEn.  v.  55),  up  to  the  hilt. 


56:  I,  2,  3,  4.]  PREPOSITIONS.  147 

REMARK.  —  Terms  is  found  especially  with  the  feminine  of  the 
adjective  pronouns,  in  an  adverbial  sense :  as, 

hactenus,  hitherto  ;  quatenus,  so  far  as,  &c. 
Sometimes  it  takes  the  Genitive :  as, 

Corcyrse  tenus  (Liv.  xxv.  24),  as  far  as  Corcyra. 

2.  Many  words  may  be  construed  either  as  Prepositions 
or  as  Adverbs  :  thus  — 

a.  The  adverbs  pridie,  postridie,  propius,  proxime,  usque 
—  also  (less  frequently)  the  adjectives  propior  aod  proximus  — 
may  be  followed  by  the  Accusative  :  as, 

pridie  Nonas  Junias  (Cic.),  the  day  before  the  Nones  of  June 

(June  4). 
postridie  ludos  (id.),  the  day  after  the  games. 

b.  The  adverbs  palam,  procul,  simul,  may  take  the  Abla- 
tive :  as, 

palam  populo  (Liv.),  in  the  presence  of  the  people. 

C.   The  adverb  clam  may  take  either  case  (very  rare)  :  as, 

clam  matrem'  suam  (Plaut),  unbeknown  to  the  mother. 

clam  mini  (id.),1  in  secret  from  me. 

clam  vobis  (Caes.),  without  your  knowledge. 

d.  Prepositions  often  retain  their  original  meaning  as  Adverbs. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  ante  and  post,  in  relations  of 
time ;  adversus,  contra  (on  the  other  hand) ,  circiter,  prope,  and, 
in  general,  those  ending  in  a.  Clam  and  versus  are  often  ex- 
cluded from  the  list  of  Prepositions. 

[For  the  use  of  prepositions  in  Composition,  see  §  42,  3.] 

3.  Some  prepositions  or  adverbs  which  imply  comparison 
are  followed,  like  comparatives,  by  quam, —  several  words, 
or  even  clauses,  sometimes  coming  between  :  as, 

neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  (Liv.  xxxix.  10), 
nor  did  he  let  him  go  until  he  gave  a  pledge. 

Such  words  are  ante,  prius,  post,  pridie,  postridie. 

4.  The  ablative,  with  a  or  ab,  is  regularly  used  after  pas- 
sive verbs  to  denote  the  Agent,  if  a  person,  or  if  spoken  of  as 
a  person  (§  54,  4) :  as, 

jussus  a  patre,  bidden  by  his  father. 


148  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [57:    I,  2. 

REMARK.  —  The  ablative  of  the  agent  (which  requires  the  prep- 
osition) must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  ablative  of 
instrument,  which  stands  by  itself:  as, 

occisus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sword ;  but, 
occisus  ab  hoste,  slain  by  an  enemy. 

5.  The  following  prepositions  sometimes  follow  their  noun :  — 
ad,  citra,  circa,  contra,  inter,  penes,  propter,  ultra,  tenus ; 
e,  de,  juxta. 

[For  the  so-called  Dative  of  the  Agent,  with  the  Gerundive,  see 
§§  51,  4,  «.]  . 


III.    Syntax  of  the  Verb. 

57.    USE  OF  MOODS. 

(See  §  24.) 

The  MOODS  of  a  Latin  Verb  are  the  Indicative, 
Subjunctive,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 

NOTE.  —  The  Infinitive  is  not  strictly  a  mood,  being  only  the 
oblique  case  of  a  noun ;  but  it  is  most  conveniently  treated  along  with 
the  moods. 

1.  Indicative.     The  Indicative  is  the  mood  of  direct 
assertions  or  questions ;  and  is  used  when  no  special  construc- 
tion requires  one  of  the  others. 

2,  Subjunctive.    The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  special  con- 
structions, both  in  dependent  and  independent  clauses,  viz.:  — 

a.  Independent  Clauses.  !•  In  independent  clauses,  the 
subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  an  Exhortation  or  Command  (Jior- 
tatory  subjunctive) ;  a  Wish  (optative  subjunctive) ;  a  Concession 
(concessive  subjunctive) ;  or  a  Doubtful  Q.uestion  (dubitative 
subjunctive). 

«  2.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  the  conclusion  of  a  Conditional 
sentence  (apodosis),  which  is,  grammatically,  an  independent 
clause,  though  logically  depending  on  a  condition  expressed  or 
implied  (see  §§  59,  60). 

6.  Dependent  Clauses.  In  dependent  clauses,  the  subjunc- 
tive is  used  to  denote  a  Purpose  (§  64),  or  a  Result  (§  65).  It 

x 


57:2,3-]          USE  OF  MOODS:   SUBJUNCTIVE.  149 

is  used,  idiomatically,  in  Temporal  Clauses  (§  62),  in  Indirect 
Discourse  (§  67),  in  Indirect  Questions  (id.),  and  in  Intermediate 
Clauses  (§  66). 

[For  Subjunctive  after  Particles  of  Comparison,  see  §  61.] 
[For  the  so-called  Subjunctive  of  Cause,  see  §  63.] 

NOTE.  —  The  Present  Subjunctive  contains  two  distinct  forms, — 
the  Subjunctive  and  Optative  of  the  "  Indo-European"  tongue.  Both 
these  forms  had  originally  a  future  meaning ;  and  from  these  future 
meanings  all  the  uses  of  this  mood  in  Latin  are  developed.  The 
subjunctive  proper  was  originally  a  Present,  denoting  continued  action, 
which  became  Future  in  sense  (compare  conative  present  and  present 
for  future,  §  58,  2,  b) ;  and  afterwards,  in  many  uses,  Imperative  (com- 
pare future  for  imperative).  The  optative  contains,  in  composition,  a 
past  tense  of  the  root  i  (whence  eo,  elui,  go) ;  so  that  it  had  Sifuturum 
in  prceterito  meaning,  which  developed  into  a  conditional  future,  and  into 
an  expressive  of  wish  and  command',  and,  in  Latin,  lost  its  connection 
with  past  time. 

The  other  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  compounds  formed  (in 
Latin  alone)  to  remedy  the  confusion  of  optative  and  subjunctive. 
Tiie  Subjunctive  has,  therefore,  the  uses  of  both  the  optative  and 
subjunctive  of  the  cognate  languages. 

3.  Hortatory  Subjunctive.  The  subjunctive  is  used 
in  the  Present  —  less  commonly  in  the  Perfect  —  to  express 
a  command  or  exhortation :  as, 

hos   latrones    intern* ciamus   (B.  G.  vii.  38),    let  us   kill  these 

robbers. 

aut  bibat  aut  abeat  (Tusc.  v.  41),  let  him  quaff  or  quit. 
caveant  intemperantiam,  meminerint  verecundiae  (Off.  i.  34), 

let  them  shun  excess  and  cherish  modesty. 

Epicurus  hoc  viderit  (Acad.  ii.  7),  let  Epicurus  look  to  this. 
his  quoque  de  rebus  pauca  dican'tur  (Off.  i.  35),  of  this,  too,  let 

a  few  words  be  said. 

NOTE.  —  The  Perfect  represents  an  action  as  complete  in  the  future; 
but  in  most  cases  it  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  Present. 

ct.  The  Second  Person  is  used  only  of  an  indefinite  subject, 
except  in  prohibition,  in  early  Latin,  and  in  poetry :  as, 

injurias  fortunse,  quas  ferre  nequeas,  defugiendo  relinquas 
(Tusc.  v.  41),  the  -wrongs  of  fortune,  wJiich  you  cannot  bear, 
you  will  leave  behind  by  flight. 

nihil  ignoveris  (Mur.  31),  pardon  nothing. 

amicus  populo  Romano  sis  (Liv.  xxvi.  50),  be  a  friend  to  the 
Roman  people. 


150  '  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [57:   3,4. 

b.  In  prohibitions ,  the  Perfect  is  more  common  than  the  Pres- 
ent: as, 

hoc  facito  :  hoc  ne  feceris  (Div.  ii.  61),  thou  shall  do  this :  thou 

shalt  not  do  that. 

nee  mihi  illud  dixeris  (Fin.  i.  7),  do  not  say  that  to  me. 
ne  territus  fueris  (Tac.  H.  i.  16),  be  not  terrified. 

c.  The  hortatory  subjunctive  is  used  —  sometimes  with  modo, 
modo  ne,  tantum,  tantum  ne,  or  ne  alone  —  to  denote  'a  pro- 
viso :  as, 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut.  16),  if  only  the  health  be  good. 
aliam    condicionem    tantummodo  sequam  (Jug.  79),  another 

condition,  provided  it  'were  just. 
modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  30),  provided  only  he 

be  not  of  brutish  stock. 
tantummodo  Gnaeus  noster  ne  Italian!  relinquat  (Qj.F.  iii.  9), 

if  only  Pompey  'will  not  forsake  Italy. 
manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria 

(Cat.  M.  7),  old  men  retain  their  mind  if  they  only  retain  their 

zeal  and  diligence. 

d.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  of  the   hortatory  subjunc- 
tive denote  an  obligation  in  past  time,  —  the  latter  more  clearly 
representing  the  time  for  the  action  as  past :  as, 

moreretur,  inquies  (Rab.  Post.),  he  should  have  died  you  'will 

say. 

ne  poposcisses  (Att.  ii.  i),  you  should  not  have  asked. 
potius  diceret  (Off.  iii.  22),  he  should  rather  have  said. 
saltern  aliquid  de  pondere  detraxisset  (Fin.  iv.  20),  at  least  he 

should  have  taken  something  from  the  'weight. 

4.  Optative  Subjunctive.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to 
denote  a  Wish,  —  the  Present,  a  wish  conceived  as  possible  ; 
the  Imperfect,  an  unaccomplished  one  in  the  present;  the 
Pluperfect,  one  unaccomplished  in  the  past :  as, 

ita  vivam  (Att.  v.  15),  so  may  I  live  [as  true  as  I  live]. 

ne  vivam  si  scio  (id.  iv.  16),  I  'wish  I  may  not  live  if  I  know. 

di  te  perduint  (Deiot.),  the  gods  confound  thee  ! 

valeant,  valeant,  cives  mei ;  valeant,  sint  incolumes  (Mil.  34), 

farewell  [he  says],   my  fellow-citizens ;   may  they  be  secure 

from  harm. 

a.   The  Perfect  in  this  use  is  antiquated :  as, 

male  di  tibi  faxint  (Plaut.  Cure.  131),   may  the  gods  do  thee  a 
mischief. 


57 :  4>  5-]         USE  OP  MOODS:  SUBJUNCTIVE.  151 

b.  The  particles  uti  (ut),  utinam,  O  si,  often  precede  the 

Subjunctive  of  wish :  as, 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim  (Liv.  xxi.),  I  wish  I  may  be  a  false 
prophet. 

ut  pereat  positum  rubigine  telum  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  i),  may  the  un- 
used 'weapon  perish  'with  rust. 

utinam  me  mortuum  vidisses  (Q^Fr.  i.  3),  would  you  had  seen 
me  dead. 

NOTE.  —  In  this  use,  the  particle  has  no  effect  on  the  grammatical 
construction,  except  that  O  si  is  probably  a  Protasis. 

c.  Velim  with  the  present  subjunctive,  and  vellem  with  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect — with  their  compounds — (strictly,  con- 
ditional sentences  with  the  wish  in  a  dependent  clause)  are  often 
used  instead  of  a  proper  optative  subjunctive :  as, 

de  Menedemo  vellem  verum  fuisset,  de  regina  velim  verum  sit 
(Att.  iv.  16),  about  Mendemus  I  wish  it  had  been  truej  about 
the  queen  I  hope  it  may  be. 

nollem  accidisset  tempus  (Fam.  iii.  10),  I  wish  the  time  never 
had  come. 

5.  Concessive  Subjunctive.  The  subjunctive  is  used 
to  express  a  concession,  either  with  or  without  ut,  guamvis, 
quamlibet,  and  similar  words. 

REMARK.  —  In  this  use,  the  Present  refers  to  future  or  indefinite 
time ;  the  Imperfect  to  present  or  past  time,  —  the  concession  being 
impliedly  untrue ;  the  Perfect  to  past  time  or  completed  future 
time ;  the  Pluperfect  to  completed  action  in  past  time  (usually 
untrue)  :  as, 

nemo  is  unquam  fuit :  ne  fuerit  (Or.  29),  there  never  was  such 

a  one  you  'will  say :  granted. 
quamvis  comis  in  amicitiis  tuendis  fuerit  (Fin.  ii.  25),  amiable 

as  he  may  have  been  in  keeping  his  friendships. 
sit  Scipio  clarus,  ornetur  African  us,  erit  profecto  aliquid  loci 

nostrae  (Cat.  iv.  10),  let  Scipio  be  glorious,  and  Africanus 

honored,  yet  surely  there  'will  be  some  room  for  our  fame. 
dixerit  hoc  idem  Epicurus  .  .  .  non  pugnem  cum  nomine  (Fin. 

v.  27),  though  Epicurus  may  have  said  the  same,  I  would  not 

contend  %vith  the  man. 
ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est  (Tusc.  ii.  5), 

granted  that  pain   is   not   the  greatest  evil,   at  least  it  is 

an  evil. 
fuerit  aliis  :  tibi  quando  esse  coepit  (Verr.  i.  4r),  suppose  he  was 

[so]  to  others,  when  did  he  begin  to  be  to  you  ? 


152  SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB.  [57:  6,  J. 

6.  The  Present,  and  rarely  the  Perfect  Subjunctive,  are 
used  in  questions  implying  doubt,  indignation,  or  an  impossi- 
bility of  the  thing  being  done  (dubitative  subjunctive)  :  as, 

sed  quid  faciamus  (Att.  viii.  23),  but  what  can  we  do  ? 

quid  loquar  plura  (Pis.  32),  -why  should  I  say  more  f 

quid  hoc  homine  faciatis  (Verr.  ii.  16),  what  are  you  to  do  with 

this  fellow  f 
cui  ego  exspectem  dum  tabellae  diribeantur  (Pis.  40),  what, 

shall  I  wait  till  the  ballots  are  counted  f 
quis  enim  celaverit  ignem  (Ov.  Her.  xv.  7),  who  could  conceal 

the  flame  ? 

The  Imperfect  denotes  the  same  idea  in  past  time  :  as, 

an  ego  non  venirem  (Phil.  ii.  2),  what,  should  I  not  have  come  ? 
quid  dicerem  (Att.  vi.  3),  what  was  I  to  say? 

7.  Imperative.    The  Imperative  is  used  in  Commands ; 
also,  by  early  writers  and  poets,  in  Prohibitions :  as, 

consulite  vobis,  prospicite  patrise,  conservate  vos  (Cat.  iv.  2), 
have  care  for  yourselves,  guard  the  country,  preserve  your- 
selves, [much. 

nimiurn  ne  crede  colori  (Eel.  ii.  17),  trust  not  complexion  over- 

ad  me  fac  venias  (Fam.  xiv.  4),  do  come  to  me. 

d.  Prohibitions  are  regularly  (in  classical  Latin)  expressed  by 
ne  with  the  second  person  singular  of  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  ;  by 
noli  with  the  Infinitive ;  or  by  cave  (colloquially  fac  ne)  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  :  as, 

ne  territus  fueris  (Tac.  H.  i.  16),  be  not  frightened. 
noli  putare  (Brut.  33),  do  not  suppose. 
cave  faxis  (Ter.  Heaut.  187),  do  not  do  it. 

fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  (Fam.  xvi.  n),  pray  attend  to  nothing 
else. 

b.  In  early  Latin,  in  poetry,  and  in  general  prohibitions,  the 
Present  Subjunctive  is  also  used  :  as, 

Albi  ne  doleas  (Hor.  Od.  i.  33),  grieve  not,  Albius. 

denique  isto  bono  utare  dum  adsit :  cum  absit  ne  requiras  (Cat. 

M   10),  in  short,  use  this  good  while  present ;   when  wanting, 

do  not  regret  it. 

REMARK.  —  The  third  person  of  the  Imperative  is  antiquated 
or  poetic. 

ollis  salus  populi  suprema  lex  esto  (id.),  the  safety  of  the  people 

shall  be  their  first  law- 
justa  imperia  sunto,  iisque  cives  modeste  parento  (Leg.  iii.  3), 

let  the  commands  be  just,  and  let  the  citizens  strictly  obey  them. 


57:  7?  8.]  USE  OF  MOODS:  INFINITIVE.  153 

€•  The  Future  Imperative  is  used  where  there  is  a  distinct 
reference  to  the  future  time :  viz. 

1.  In  connection  with  a,  future  or  future-perfect ; 

2.  With  adverbs  or  other  expressions  of  time ; 

3.  In  general  directions,  as   Precepts,    Statutes,  Edicts,   and 
Wills:  as, 

cum  valetudini  consulueris,  turn  consulito  navigation!  (Fam. 
xvi.  4),  iv hen  you  have  attended  to  your  health,  then  look  to 
your  sailing. 

rei  suse  ergo  ne  quis  legatusesto  (Leg.),  no  one  shall  be  ambas- 
sador in  his  own  affair. 

REMARK.  —  The  future  form  of  the  imperative  is  regularly  used 
of  scio,  memini,  and  habeo  (in  the  sense  of  consider)  :  as, 

filiolo  me  auctum  scito  (Att.  i.  2),  learn  that  I  am  blessed  with 

a  little  boy. 
sic  habeto,   mi  Tiro   (Fam.  xvi.  4),  so  understand  it,  my  good 

Tiro. 
de  palla  memento,  amabo  (PI.  Asin.),  pray,  dear,  remember 

the  gown. 

d.  The  Future  is  sometimes  used  for  the  imperative ;  and  quin 
(why  not  ?)  with  the  present  indicative  may  have  the  force  of  an 
imperative :  as, 

si  quid  accident  novi,  facies  ut  sciam  (Fam.  xiv.  %), you -will  let 

me  know  if  anything  new  happens. 
quin  accipis?  (Ter.  Heaut.  iv.  7),  here,  take  it. 

8.  Infinitive*  The  Infinitive  denotes  the  action  of  the 
verb  as  an  abstract  noun,  differing,  however,  from  other 
abstract  nouns  in  the  following  points: — (1)  It  admits,  in 
many  cases,  of  the  distinction  of  tense  ;  (2)  It  is  modified  by 
adverbs  and  not  by  adjectives  ;  (3)  It  governs  the  case  of  its 
verb  ;  (4)  It  is  only  used  in  special  constructions. 

NOTE.  —  The  Infinitive  is  properly  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract 
noun,  denoting  Purpose,  which  has  developed  in  Latin,  in  many  cases, 
into  a  substitute  for  a  finite  verb.  Hence  the  variety  of  its  use.  Its 
Subject  is,  strictly,  the  Object  of  some  other  verb,  which  has  become 
attached  to  it:  as,  jubeo  te  valere,  lit.,  1  command  you  for  being  well 
(i.e.  that  you  may  be  well) ;  just  as,  in  Purpose-clauses,  the  purpose 
becomes  the  object  of  command  (compare  Purpose  Clauses,  §  64). 

a.  Infinitive  as  Subject.  The  infinitive,  with  or  without  a 
subject  accusative,  may  be  used  as  the  Subject  of  a  verb  (or  in 
predicate  apposition),  and,  rarely,  as  the  Object :  as, 

7* 


154  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [57:  8. 

nihil  est  aliud  [hominem]  bene  et  beate  vivere.  nisi  honeste 
et  recte  vivere  (Parad.  i.  6),  to  live  well  and  happily,  is  noth- 
ing else  than  to  live  honorably  and  rightly. 

invidere  non  cadit  in  sapientem  (Tusc.  iii.  10),  envy  does  not 
belong  to  a  wise  man. 

est  humanitatis  vestrae  .  .  .  prohibere  (Man.  7),  it  is  for  your 
humanity  to  hold  safe,  &c. 

nam  istuc  ipsum  non  esse  cum  fueris  miserrirnum  puto  (Tusc. 
i.  6),  for  I  think  this  very  thing  most  wretched,  not  to  be  when 
one  has  been. 

In  this  use,  the  infinitive  is  found  chiefly  with  esse  and  impersonal 
verbs,  — rarely  with  others. 

b.  The  infinitive  is  used  with  many  Impersonal  verbs  and  ex- 
pressions, partly  as  subject  and  partly  as  complement  (see  Note 
below)  :  as, 

te  abundare  oportet  praeceptis  (Off.  i.  i),  you  must  abound  in 

maxims. 
id  primum  in  poetis  cerni  licet  (De  Or.  iii.  7),  this  may  be  seen 

first  in  poets. 
reperiebat  quid  dici  opus  esset  (Brut.  59),  he  found  what  needed 

to  be  said. 
haec  praescripta  servantem  licet  magnifice  vivere  (Off.  i.  26), 

one  who  observes  these  precepts  may  live  nobly. 
proponis  quam   sit  turpe   me   adesse   (Att.  ix.  2),  you  make  it 

clear  how  base  it  is  for  me  to  be  present. 

c.  Complementary    Infinitive.      The   infinitive,   without  a 
subject,  is  used  with  verbs  which  require  another  action  of  the 
same  subject  to  complete  their  meaning.     Such  are  verbs  denoting 
to  be  able,  dare,  undertake,  remember,  forget,  be  accustomed,  begin, 
continue,  cease,  hesitate,  learn,  know  how,  fear,  and  the  like  :  as, 

hoc  queo  dicere  (Cat.  M.  10),  this  I  can  say. 
mitto  quaerere  (Rose.  Am  ),  I  omit  to  ask.  [own  presence. 

vereor  laudare  prsesentem  (N.  D.  i.  21),  I  fear  to  praise  in  ones 
oro  ut  matures  venire  (Att.  iv.  i),  pray  make  haste  to  come. 

NOTE.  —  The  mark  of  this  construction  is  that  no  Subject  of  these 
infinitives  is  admissible  or  conceivable ;  though  the  same  verbs,  in 
other  senses,  may  take  an  infinitive  with  a  subject. 

d.  The  infinitive  is  used  optionally  with  many  verbs  which  also 
take  a  subjunctive  clause  (§  70)  :  such  are  those  signifying  willing- 
ness, necessity,  propriety,  resolve,  command,  prohibition,  effort,  and 
the  like.   The  subject  is  usually,  though  not  always,  omitted,  when 
it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  :  as, 

quos  tueri  debent  deserunt  (Off.  i.  9),  they  forsake  those  whom 

they  should  protect. 
^^Atticos  volo  imitari  (Brut.  82),  I  wish  to  imitate  the  Attics. 


57:  8.]  USE  OF  MOODS:   INFINITIVE.  155 

student  excellere  (Off.  i.  32),  they  aim  to  excel. 

istum  exheredare  in  animo  habebat  (Rose.  Am.  18),  he  had  it 

in  mind  to  deprive  him  of  the  inheritance. 
cupio  me  esse  clementem  [=  cupio  esse  clemens]  (Cat.  i.  2), 

/  desire  to  be  merciful. 

Some  of  these  verbs — jubeo  and  veto  regularly  —  may  take  the 
infinitive  with  another  subject :  as, 

signa  inferri  jubet  (Liv.  xlii.  59),   he  orders  the  standards  to 
be  borne  forward. 

NOTE.  —  This  construction,  though  in  many  cases  different  from 
the  two  preceding,  shades  off  imperceptibly  into  them.  In  none  of 
the  uses  is  the  infinitive  strictly  Subject  or  Object ;  but  its  meaning 
is  developed  from  the  original  one  of  purpose.  Hence  the  distinction 
between  the  uses  is  not  always  clearly  marked. 

e.  With  Subject  Accusative.  The  infinitive,  with  subject 
accusative,  is  regularly  used  after  verbs  of  knowing,  thinking, 
telling,  and  the  like  (verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  §  67,  i) : 

as, 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  says  that  the 
hill  is  held  by  the  enemy. 

NOTE.  —  The  Infinitive  may  thus  represent,  in  indirect  discourse,  a 
finite  verb  in  direct  discourse,  admitting  all  the  variations  of  the  verb 
except  number  and  person  (see  §  67). 

REMARK. — 1.  With  verbs  which  govern  the  dative,  the  subject 
of  the  action  may  be  in  the  dative.  With  licet  regularly,  and  with 
others  rarely,  the  predicate  may  also  be  in  the  dative :  as, 

nemini  certare  cum  eo  necesse  fuit  (Liv.  xxi.  n),   there  was 

need  for  none  to  strive  with  him. 
non  libet  mi  hi  deplorare  vitam  (Cat.  M.  23),   I  have  no  desire 

to  bewail  life.  [gent. 

mihi  negligent!  esse  non  licet  (Att.  i.  17),  I  must  not  be  negli- 
non  est  stantibus  omnibus  necesse  dicere  (Marc,  n),  //  is  not 

necessary  for  all  to  speak  standing. 
expedit  bonas  esse  vobis   (Ter.  Heaut.  ii.  4),   it  is  for  your 

interest  to  be  good. 

So  with  the  dativus  commodi :  as, 

quid  est  tarn  secundum  naturam  quam  senibus  emori  (Cat.  M. 
19),  what  is  so  according  to  nature  as  for  old  men  to  die  f 

2.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  not  expressed,  a  predi- 
cate (except  after  impersonals)  takes  the  case  of  the  subject :  as, 

si  esset  in  iis  fides  in  quibus  summa  esse  debebat  (Fam.  i.  i), 
if  there  were  faith  in  those   in  whom  it  ought  to  be  greatest. 

So,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  even  in  Indirect  Discourse :  as, 

vir  bonus  et  sapiens  ait  esse  paratus  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  7),  a  good  and 
wise  man  says  he  is  prepared^  &c. 


156  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [57:   8. 

sensit  mecjios  delapsus  in  hostes  (^Sn.  ii.  377),  he  found  himself 
fallen  amongst  the  foe. 

f.  In  a  few  cases,  the  infinitive  retains  its  original  meaning  of 
*       purpose:  viz. 

1.  With  habeo,  do,  ministro,  in  isolated  passages :  as, 
tantum  habeo  polliceri  (Fam.  i.  5),  so  muck  I  have  to  promise. 

2.  After  the  adjectives  paratus,  suetus,  and  their  compounds, 
id  quod  parati  sunt  face  re  (Quin.  2),  which  they  are  ready  to  do. 

3.  In  poetry  and  later  writers  with  any  verb  or  adjective :  as, 

durus  componere  versus  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  4),  harsh  in  composing 
furit  te  reperire  (Hor.  Od.  i.  15),  he  rages  to  find  thee.  [verse. 
cantari  dignus  (Eel.  v.  54),  worthy  to  be  sunr. 

REMARK. — Rarely,  in  poetry,  the  infinitive  is  used  to  denote 
result. 

g.  The  infinitive,  with  subject-accusative,  may  be  used  in  Ex- 
clamations (compare  §  52,  4)  :  as, 

mene  incepto  desistere  victam  (^n.  i.  37),  what  !  I  desist  beaten 

from  my  purpose? 

te  in  tantas  aerumnas  propter  me  incidisse  (Fam.  xiv.  i),  alas! 
*  lhat  you  should  fall  into  such  grief  for  me. 

NOTE.  —  This  construction  is  elliptical :  that  is,  the  thought  is 
quoted  in  Indirect  Discourse,  though  no  verb  of  Saying,  &c.,  appears, 
or  perhaps  is  thought  of  (compare  the  French  dire  que). 

h*  Historical  Infinitive.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the 
tenses  of  the  Indicative  in  narration,  and  takes  a  subject  in  the 
nominative :  as, 

turn  Catilina  polliceri  novas  tabulas  (Sail.  Cat.  21),  then  Cati- 
line promised  abolition  of  debts  [clean  ledgers]. 

ego  instare  ut  mihi  responderet  (Verr.  ii.  77),  I  pressed  him  to 
answer. 

This   usage   is   most  frequent  where  many  verbs   are   crowded 
together  in  rapid  narrative  :  as, 

pars  cedere,  alii  insequi ;  neque  signa  neque  ordines  servare; 
ubi  quemque  periculum  ceperat,  ibi  resistere  ac  propulsare; 
arma,  tela,  equi,  viri,  hostes  atque  cives  permixti;  nihil 
consilio  neque  imperio  agi ;  fors  omnia  regere  (Jug.  51), 
a  part  give  way,  others  press  on  ;  they  hold  neither  to  stan- 
dards nor  ranks  ;  where  danger  overtook,  there  each  would 
stand  and  fight ;  weapons,  missiles,  horses,  men,  foe  and  friend^ 
were  mixed;  nothing  went  by  counsel  or  command ;  chance 
.  ruled  all. 


58:  i,2.]    USE  OF  TENSES:  INDICATIVE.        157 

58.  USE  OF  TENSES. 

The  TENSES  are  the  Present,  Imperfect,  Future 
(of  incomplete  action),  and  the  Perfect,  Pluperfect, 
Future  Perfect  (of  completed  action). 

1.  Tenses  of  the  Indicative.     The  tenses  of  the  In- 
dicative denote  absolute  time  ;  that  is,  present,  past,  or  future, 
in  reference  to  the  Speaker. 

2.  Present.    The  Present  denotes  an  action  or  state,  as 
now  existing,  as  incomplete,  or  as  indefinite  witnout  reference 
to  time :  as, 

agitur  salus  sociorum   (Manil.  2),  the  safety  of  our  allies  is 

at  stake. 
Senatus  haec  intellegit,  consul  videt,  hie  tamen  vivit  (Cat.  i.  i), 

the  Senate  knows  this,  the  consul  sees,  yet  this  man  lives. 
nihil  est  victoria  dulcius  (Verr.  vi.  26),  nothing  is  sweeter  than 

victory. 
tu  actionem  instituis,  ille  aciem  instruit  (Mur.  9),  you  arrange 

a  case,  he  arrays  an  army. 

CL.  The  present,  with  expressions  of  duration  of  time,  denotes 
an  action  begun  in  the  past  but  continuing  in  the  present :  as, 

patimur  jam  multos  annos  (Verr.  vi.  48),  we  suffer  now  these 
.    many  years. 

anni  sunt  octo  cum  ista  causa  versatur  (Clu.  30),  it  is  now  eight 
years  that  this  case  has  been  in  hand. 

&«  Conative  Present.  The  present  sometimes  denotes  an 
action  not  completed  at  all,  but  only  attempted :  as, 

Quintus  frater  Tusculanum  venditat  (Att.  i.  14),  my  brother 
Quintus  is  trying  to  sell  the  place  at  Tusculum. 

(So  the  present  Infinitive  and  Participle.) 

€•  The  present,  especially  in  colloquial  language,  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  future:  as, 

imusne  sessum  (De  Or.  iii.  5),  shall  we  take  a  seat? 

ecquid  me  adjuvas?  (Clu.  26),  won't  you  give  me  a  little  help? 

in  jus  voco  te.     non  eo.     non  is?   (PI.  As.  480),   I  summon  you 

to  the  court.     I  won't  go.      You  won't  ? 
si  reus  condemnatur,  desinent  homines  dicere  his  judiciis  pecu- 

niam  plurimum  posse  (Verr.  i.  2),  if  the  prisoner  is  convicted, 

men  will  no  longer  say  that  money  is  the  chief  power  in  the 

courts. 

(See  also  under  cum,  antequam,  dum  §  62.) 


158  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [58  I   2,  3. 

d*  Historical  Present.     The   present  in  lively  narrative  is 
often  used  for  the  historical  perfect :  as, 

affertur  nuntius  Syracusas  ;  curritur  ad  prsetorium ;  Cleomenes, 
quamquam  nox  erat,  tamen  in  publico  esse  non  audet; 
includit  se  domi  (Verr.  vi.  35),  the  news  is  brought  to  Syra- 
cuse;  they  run  to  head-quarters;  Cleomenes,  though  it  was 
night,  does  not  venture  to  be  abroad ;  he  shuts  himself  up  at 
home. 

€•   The  present  is  regularly  used  with  dum,  while,  though  re- 
ferring to  past  time :  as, 

hsec  dum  aguntur,  interea  Cleomenes  jam  ad  Elori  litus  per- 
venerat  (id«)>  while  this  is  going  on,  Cleomenes  meanwhile 
had  come  down  to  the  coast  at  Riorum. 

But  when  the  time  referred  to  is  contrasted  with  some  other,  the 
past,  tenses  must  be  used :  as, 

nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum  animum  meum  videbatis  (Cat. 
M.  22),  for  even  when  I  was  with  you,  you  did  not  see  my  soul. 

f.   The  present  is  regularly  used  of  writers  whose  works  are 
extant:  as, 

Epicurus  vero  ea  dicit  (Tusc.  ii.  7),  but  Epicurus  says  such 

things. 
apud  ilium  Ulysses    lamentatur  in  vulnere   (id.  21),   in  him 

[Sophocles]    Ulysses  bewails  over  his  wotind. 

3.  Imperfect.     The  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  or  con- 
dition continued  or  repeated  in  past  time :  as, 

hunc  audiebant  antea  (Man.  5),  they  used  to  hear  him  before. 
Socrates  ita  censebat  itaque   disseruit  (Tusc.  i.  30),   Socrates 

thought  so  [habitually]  and  so  he  spoke  [then]. 
C.  Duiliurn  redeuntem  a  cen&  senem  saepe  videbam  (C.M.  13), 

I  would  often  see  Duilius,  then  old,  coming  home  from  dinner. 

a.   Hence  the  imperfect  is  used  in  descriptions :  as, 

erant  omnino  itinera  duo  .  .  .  mons  altissimus  impendebat 
(B.  G.  16),  there  were  in  all  two  ways  .  .  .  a  very  high  moun- 
tain overhung. 

&•   The  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  a  pluperfect 
and  imperfect  combined  (see  above,  2,  a) :  as, 

copias  quas  diu  comparabant  (Fam.  i.  13),  the  forces  which 
they  had  long  been  getting  ready. 

c»  The  imperfect  sometimes  denotes  an  action  merely  attempted, 
^Jbut  never  accomplished  (compare  conative  present,  2,  6)  :  as, 


58:  3?  4,5-]  USE  OF  TENSES.  159 

in  exsilium  eiciebam  quern  jam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  vide- 

bam  (Cat.  ii.  6),  •was  I  sending  into  exile  one  who  I  saw  had 

already  gone  into  war  ? 
consules   sedabant  tumultus   (Liv.  iii.  15),   the  consuls  busied 

themselves  to  calm  the  tumult. 
si  licitum  esset  veniebant  (Verr.  vi.  49),  they  were  coming  if  it 

had  been  allowed. 

d.  The  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  certain  sur- 
prise at  the  present  discovery  of  a  fact  already  existing :  as, 

O  tu  quoque  hie  aderas,  Phormio  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  6),   O,  you  are 

here  too,  Phormio. 
ehem   pater   mi,   tu   hie  eras?   (PI.  id.  v.  7),  what,  you  here, 

father  ? 
ah  miser!  quanta  laborabas  Charybdi  (Hor.  Od.  i.  27),  unhappy 

boy,  what  a  whirlpool  you  are  struggling  in  [and  I  never 

knew  it]. 

e.  The  imperfect  is  often  used  in  narration  by  the  comic  poets, 
where  later  writers  would  employ  the  perfect:  as, 

ad  amicum  Calliclem  quoi  rem  aibat  mandasse  hie  suam  (Trin. 

956),  to  his  friend  Callicles,  to  whom,  he  said,  he  had  intrusted 

his  property. 
praesagibat  animus  frustra  me  ire  quom  exibam  domo  (Aul. 

222),  my  mind  mistrusted  when  I  went  from  home  that  I  went 

in  vain. 

The  Imperfect  Indicative  in  Apodosis,  contrary  to  fact,  regularly 
refers  to  present  time  (see  §  59,  3,  d). 

4.  Future.     The  Future  denotes  an  action  or  condition 
bat  will  occur  hereafter. 

[For  Future  instead  of  the  Imperative,  see  §  57,  7,  d.~\ 

5.  Perfect.     The  Perfect  definite  denotes  an  action  as 
now  completed ;  the  Perfect  historical,  as  having  taken  place 
indefinitely,  in  past  time :  as, 

?  ut  ego  feci,  qui  Grsecas  litteras  senex  didici  (C.  M.  8),  as  I  have 

done,  who  have  learned  Greek  in  my  old  age. 
,   tantum  bellum  extrema  hieme  apparavit,  infeunte  vere  suscepit, 

media  aestate  confecit  (Man.   12),   so  great  a  war  he  made 

ready  for  at  the  end  of  winter,  undertook  in  early  spring,  and 

finished  by  midsummer. 

»'    [For  the  difference  between  the  Perfect  and  Imperfect  in  nor- 
Ration,  see  Note,  page  53.] 

- 


160  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [58:   5,6. 

a.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  emphatically  to  denote  that 
something  no  longer  exists  :  as, 

fuit  ista  quondam  in  hac  re  publica  virtus  (Cat.  i.  i),  there  -was 

once  such  virtue  in  this  commonwealth. 
fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium  (yEn.  ii.  325),  we  were  Trojans,  Ilium 

did  exist. 
habuit,  non  habet  (Tusc.  i.  36),  he  had,  he  has  no  longer. 

b.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  indefinite  time  in  connec- 
tion with  a  general  present :  as, 

qui  in  compedibus  corporis  semper  fuerunt,  etiam  cum  soluti 
sunt  tardius  ingrediuntur  (Tusc.  i.  31),  they  -who  have  always 
been  in  fetters  of  the  body,  even  when  released  move  more 
slowly. 

c*  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  a  general  truth,  especially 
with  negations :  as, 

qui  studet  contingere  metam  multa  tulit  fecitque  (Hor.  A.  P. 

412),  he  who  aims  to  reach  the  goal,  first  bears  and  does  many 

thing's. 
non  seris  acervus  et  auri  deduxit  corpore  febres  (id.  Ep.  i.  2), 

the  pile  of  brass  and  gold  removes  not  the  fever  from  the 

frame. 

d*  The  perfect  is  often  used  in  expressions  containing  or  im- 
plying a  negation,  where  in  affirmation  the  imperfect  would  be  pre- 
ferred: as, 

dicebat  melius  quam  scripsit  Hortensius  (Or.  38),  Hortensius 
t  spoke  better  than  he  wrote.     [Here  the  negative  is  implied  in 

the  comparison  :   compare  the  use  of  quisquam,  ullus.   &c. 

(foot  of  p.  48),  and  the  French  ne  after  comparatives  and 

superlatives.] 

[For  Perfect  in  apodosis  of  future  conditions,  see  §  59,  4,  e ; 
for  Perfect  after  ubi,  &c.,  §  62,  2,  a.] 

REMARK. — The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  of  a  few  verbs  are 
equivalent  to  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  kindred  verbs  (novi, 
/  know;  coepi,  /  begin;  memini,  /  remember;  cognoveram, 
I  knew ;  venerat  (=  aderat),  he  was  at  hand  (see  §  36,  i) :  as, 

qui  dies  sestus  maximos  efficere  consuevit  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  which 

day  generally  makes  the  highest  tides. 
cujus  splendor  obsolevit  (Quinc.  v.  18),  whose  splendor  is  now 

out  of  date. 

6.  Pluperfect.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  to  denote  an 
action  completed  in  time  past ;  sometimes,  also,  repeated  in 
indefinite  time :  as, 


58:    7-I00  USE    OF   TENSES.  161 

neque  vero  cum  aliquid  mandaverat  confectum  putabat  (Cat. 

iii.  7),  for  iv hen  he  had  given  a  thing  in  charge  he  did  not 

look  on  it  as  already  done. 
quse  si  quando  adepta  est  id  quod  ei  fuerat  concupitum,  turn 

fert  alacritatem  (Tusc.  iv.  15),  if  it  [desire]  ever  has  gained 

'what  it  had  desired,  then  it  produces  joy. 

?.  Future  Perfect.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an 
action  as  completed  in  the  future :  as, 

ut  sementem  feceris  ita  metes  (Or.  ii.  65),  as  you  sotv,  so  shall 
you  reap. 

REMARK.  —  The  Future  Perfect  is  used  (as  above)  with  much 
greater  exactness  in  Latin  than  in  English,  and  may  even  be  used 
instead  of  the  Future,  from  the  fondness  of  the  Latins  for  repre- 
senting an  action  as  completed  :  as, 
quid  inventum  sit  paulo  post  videro  (Acad.  ii.  24),  'what  has 

been  found  out  I  will  see  presently. 

ego  certe  meum  officium  pnestitero  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  /  at  least 
shall  have  done  my  duty. 

§.  Epistolary  Tenses.  In  Letters,  the  perfect  (his- 
torical) or  imperfect  may  be  used  for  the  present,  and  the  plu- 
perfect for  past  tenses,  as  if  the  letter  were  dated  at  the  time 
it  is  supposed  to  be  received:  as, 

neque  tamen,  cum  hsec  scribebam,  eram  nescius  quantis  oneri- 
bus  premerere  (Fam.  v.  12),  nor  -while  I  -write  this  am  I 
ignorant  under  what  burdens  you  are  -weighed. 

ad  tuas  omnes  [epistulas]  rescripseram  pridie  (Att.  ix.  10),  / 
[have]  answered  all  your  letters  yesterday. 

9.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive.    The  tenses  of  the  Sub- 
junctive denote  Absolute  time  only  in  independent  clauses. 
In  these  the  Present  always  refers  to  future  time  ;  the  Imper- 
fect to  either  past  or  present ;  the  Perfect  to  either  future  or 
past ;  the  Pluperfect  always  to  past. 

In  dependent  clauses,  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  denote 
Relative  time,  not  with  reference  to  the  speaker,  but  to  the 
action  of  some  other  verb. 

10.  Sequence  of  Tenses.     The   forms   which   denote 
absolute  time  may  be  used  in  any  connection.     But  those 
denoting  relative  time  follow  special  rules  for  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses.     For  this  purpose,  tenses  are  divided  into  two 
classes:  viz., 


1G2  SYNTAX   OP   THE    VERB.  [58:    IO. 

1.  Primary,  including  the  Present,  both  Futures,  and  Perfect 
(definite) ; 

2.  Secondary,  including  the  Imperfect,  Perfect  (historical), 
and  Pluperfect^ 

RUL  E.  —  In  compound  sentences,  a  Primary  tense  in  the 
leading  clause  is  followed  by  a  Primary  tense  in  the  dependent 
clause ;  and  a  Secondary  tense  is  followed  by  a  Secondary :  as, 

scribit  lit  nos  moneat,  he  writes  to  warn  us. 

scribet  ut  nos  moneat,  he  will  write  tg  warn  us. 

scripsit  ut  nos  moneat,  he  has  written  to  warn  us. 

scribe  (scribito)  ut  nos  moneas,  write  that  you  may  warn  us. 

scripsit  ut  nos  moneret,  he  wrote  to  warn  us. 

scribit  quasi  oblitus  sit,  he  writes  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

scripsit  quasi  oblitus  esset,  he  wrote  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

REMARK.  —  The  Rule  appears  in  the  following  Diagram :  — 


TENSES   OF   THE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Primary. 

1.  Action  not  complete  (time  rela-  >    PRESENT 


tively  present  or  future). 


Secondary. 
IMPERFECT. 


2.  Action  complete  (time  relatively  >    PERFECT.       PLUPERFECT. 

past).  I 

In  applying  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses,  consider  (1) 
whether  the  leading  verb  is  primary  or  secondary ;  (2)  whether  the 
dependent  verb  is  required  to  denote  complete  action  (i.e.  rela- 
tively past),  or  incomplete  (relatively  present  or  future)".  By  tak- 
ing the  corresponding  tense,  as  given  above,  the  correct  usage 
will  generally  be  found. 

Notice  that  the  FUTURE  PERFECT  denotes  relatively  completed 
action,  and  hence  is  represented  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  PER- 
FECT or  PLUPERFECT. 

a.  The  perfect  definite  is  properly  a  primary  tense  ;  but  as  its 
action  is  (at  least)  commenced  in  past  time,  it  is  more  commonly 
followed  by  secondary  tenses  :  as, 

ut  satis  esset  praesidi  provisum  est  (Cat.  ii.  12),  provision  has 

been  made  that  there  should  be  ample  guard. 
adduxi  hominem  in  quo  satisfacere  exteris  nationibus  possetis 

(Verr.  i.  i),   /  have  brought  a  man  in  ivhose  person  you  can 

make  satisfaction  to  foreign  nations. 

b.  The  perfect  subjunctive  is  regularly  used  to  denote  any  past 
action  (either  as  Perfect  definite  or  historical)  depending  on  a  verb 
in  a  primary  tense  :  as, 


58:    10.]  USE    OF   TENSES.  163 

ex  epistulis  intellegi  licet  quam  frequens  fuerit  Platonis  auditor 
(Or.  4),  it  may  be  understood  from  his  letters  how  constant  a 
hearer  he  -was  of  Plato. 

c.  In  clauses  of  Result,  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  very  often 
(the  present  rarely)  used  after  secondary  tenses  :  as, 

Hortensius  ardebat  dicendi  cupiditate  sic  ut  in  nullo  unquam 
flagrantius  studium  viderim  (Brut.  88),  Hortensius  was  so  hot 
'with  desire  of  speaking"  that  I  never  saw  a  more  burning 
ardor  in  any  man. 

Siciliam  Verres  per  triennium  ita  vexavit  ac  perdidit,  ut  ea 
restitui  in  antiquum  statum  nullo  modo  possit  (Verr.  i.  4), 
for  three  years  [Verres]  so  racked  and  ruined  Sicily,  that  she 
can  in  no  way  be  restored  to  her  former  state* 

REMARK.  —  This  construction  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  fact 
stated  as  a  result ;  while  the  regular  one  gives  more  prominence 
to  the  main  clause.  The  perfect,  thus  used,  can  stand  only  for  a 
perfect  indicative,  not  an  imperfect ;  and,  in  general,  the  perfect  is 
often  represented  by  the  perfect  subjunctive,  contrary  to  the 
general  rule :  as, 

Thorius  erat  ita  non  superstitiosus  ut  ilia  plurima  in  sua  pa- 
tria  et  sacrifieta  et  fana  contemneret;  ita  non  timidus  a'd 
mortem  ut  in  acie  sit  ob  rem  publicam  interfectus  (Fin.  ii. 
20),  Thorius  ivas  so  little  superstitious  that  he  despised  [con- 
tern  nebat]  the  many  sacrifices  and  shrines  in  his  country,  so 
little  timorous  about  death  that  he  ivas  killed  [interfectus  est] 
in  battle,  in  defence  of  the  state. 

Zeno  nullo  modo  is  erat  qui  nervos  virtutis  incident  [compare 
5,  d~]  ;  sed  contra  qui  omnia  in  una  virtute  poneret  (Acad.  i. 
10),  Zeno  was  noway  one  to  cut  the  sinews  of  virtue ;  but  one, 
on  the  contrary,  who  made  everything  depend  on  virtue  alone. 

d.  A  general  truth  after  a  past  tense  follows  the  connection 
of  tenses  in  Latin  (though  not  usually  in  English) :  as, 

ex  his  quae  tribuisset  sibi  quam  mutabilis  esset  reputabat  (Q^C. 

iii.  9),  from  what  she  [Fortune]  had  bestowed  on  him,  he  re- 
flected how  inconstant  she  is. 
ibi  quantam  vim  ad  stimulandos  animos  ira  haberet,  apparuit 

(Liv.  xxxiii.  37),  here  it  appeared  what  power  anger  has  to 

goad  the  mind. 

e.  The  historical  present,  or  the  present  with  dum,  may  be 
followed  by  either  primary  or  secondary  tenses,  but  more  com- 
monly by  secondary :  as, 

rogat  ut  curet  quod  dixisset  (Qj-rinct-  5),  he  asks  him  to  attend  to 

the  thing  he  had  spoken  of. 
castella  communit  quo  facilius  prohiberi  possent  (B.  G.  i.  8), 

he  strengthens  the  forts  that  they  might  be  more  easily  kept 

off. 


164  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [58:    IO,  II. 

/.  When  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  used  in 
protasis  and  apodosis,  they  may  stand  after  any  tense  :  as, 

quia  tale  sit,  ut  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines,  &c.  (Fin.  ii.  15), 
because  it  is  such  that  even  if  men  -were  ignorant. 

{/•  The  imperfect  subjunctive,  in  protasis  or  apodosis,  even 
when  it  refers  to  present  time,  is  regularly  followed  by  secondary 
tenses :  as, 

si  solos  eos  diceres  miseros  quibus  moriendum  esset,  neminem 
exciperes  (Tusc.  i.  5),  if  you  called  only  those  'wretched  who 
must  die,  you  'would  except  no  one. 

h*  After  the  present,  when  a  past  tense  appears  to  be  in  the 
writers  thought,  secondary  tenses  sometimes  follow  by  a  kind  of 
Synesis:  as, 

sed  tamen  ut  scires  haec  tibi  scribo  (Fam.  xiii.  47),  but  yet  that 

you  may  know,  1  'write  thus  [as  if  Epistolary  Imperfect], 
cujus  przecepti  tanta  vis  est  ut  ea  non  homini  cuipiam  sed 
Delphico  deo  tribueretur  (Leg.  i.  22),  such  is  the  force  of  this 
precept,  that  it  -was  ascribed  not  to  any  man,  but  to  the  Del- 
phic god  [the  precept  was  an  old  one]. 

11.  Infinitive.  The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  are  present, 
past,  or  future,  relatively  to  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which 
they  depend :  as, 

nostros  non  esse  inferiores  intellexit  (B.  G.  ii.  8),  he  ascertained 

that  our  men  ivere  not  inferior. 
quam  Juno  fertur  terris  magis  omnibus  coluisse  (^En.  i.  15), 

which  Jtmb,  'tis  said,  cherished  above  all  lands. 
sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures  (Lael.  21),  they  hope 

they  shall  receive  the  greatest  advantage. 

a.  The  present  infinitive,  after  a  verb  in  the  past,  must  often 
be  rendered  by  the  perfect  infinitive  in  English :  as, 

scire  potuit  (Milo,  17),  he  might  have  known. 

qui  videbatur  omnino  mori  non  debuisse  (Arch.  8),  who  seemed 
[one  that]  ought  not  to  have  died  at  all. 

REMARK.  —  This  is  most  frequent  with  verbs  of  necessity,  pro- 
priety, and  possibility  (potui,  debui,  oportuit) ;  and  occurs 
because  the  tenses  of  the  corresponding  verbs  in  English  have  lost 
their  original  past  signification  (compare  "  one  whom  he  ought 
[owed]  a  grudge  unto,"  A.D.  1597). 

6.  Memini  and  a  few  other  verbs,  stating  what  the  speaker 
has  personally  witnessed,  fake  the  present  infinitive  :  as, 

memini  Catonem  mecum  disserere  (Lael.  3),  I  remember  Cato's 

discoursing  with  me  (So  dicere  aiebat,  De  Or.  ii.  3.) 
Compare  Greek  present  infinitive  for  imperfect  (G.  203,  N.  i). 

REMARK. — The  infinitive  posse  is  used  also  in  the  sense  of  a 
future. 


58:    II.]  USE    OF    TENSES.  165 

c.  Except  in  Indirect  Discourse  the  present  infinitive  only  is 
generally  used,  with  no  distinct  reference  to  time  :  as, 

est  adulescentis  majores  natu  vereri  (Off.  i.  34),  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  young  to  reverence  their  elders. 

de  quibus  dicere  aggrediar  (Off.  ii.  i),  of  which  I -will  under- 
take to  speak. 

d.  After  verbs  of  wishing,  necessity,  and  the  like,  the  perfect 
passive  infinitive  is  often  used  instead  of  the  present :  as, 

domestica  cura  te  levatum  [esse]  volo  (Q^.F.  iii.  9),  1  wish  you 

relieved  of  household  care. 
liberis  consultum  volumus  propter  ipsos  (Fin.  iii.  17),  we  wish 

regard  paid  to  children  on  their  own  account. 
quod  jampridem  factum  esse  oportuit  (Cat.  i.  2),  which  ought 

to  have  been  done  long  ago. 

REMARK.  —  In  early  Latin,  and  in  poetry,  the  perfect  active  is 
also  used,  and  even  after  other  verbs  than  those  of  wishing :  as, 

commisisse  cavet  (Hor.  A.  P.  168),  he  is  cautious  of  doing. 
edixerunt  ne  quis  quid  fugse  caus&   vendidisse    neve  emisse 

vellet  (Liv.  xxxix.  17),  they  [the  old  laws]  declared  that  none 

should  sell  or  buy  to  escape  obligation. 
baud  equidem  premendo  alium  me  extulisse  velim  (id.  xxii.  59), 

/  would  not  by  crushing  another  exalt  myself. 
sunt  qui  nolint  tetigisse  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2),  there  are  those  who 

would  not  touch. 
nollem  dixisse  (Verr.  v.  20),  I  would  not  say. 

e.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  used,  especially  by  poets,  to  denote 
a  completed  action  after  verbs  of  feeling ;   also  with  satis  est 
(habeo),  melius  est,  contentus  sum,  and  in  a  few  other  cases 
where  this  distinction  is  important :  as, 

qui£sse  erit  melius  (Liv.  iii.  48),  it  will  be  better  to  have  kept 

quiet. 
non  poenitebat  intercapedinem  scribendi  fecisse  (Fain.  xvi.  21), 

I  was  not  sorry  to  have  made  a  respite  of  writing. 
pudet  me  .  .  .  non  praestitisse  (id.  xiv.  3),  I  am  ashamed  not  to 

have  shown. 
surit  quoscurriculo  pulverem  Olympicum  collegisse  juvat  (Hor. 

Od.  i.  i),  there  are  those  who  delight,  &c. 
majus  dedecus  est  parta  amittere  quam  omnino  non  paravisse 

(Jug.  31),  it  is  more  discredit  to  have  lost  one's  gains  than 

never  to  have  gained  at  all. 
nil  ego  si  peccem  possum  nescisse  (Ov.  Her.  xvii.  47),  if  I  go 

wrong,  I  cannot  have  done  it  in  ignorance. 

f.  Thp  future  infinitive  is  often  expressed  by  fore  or  futu- 
rum  esse  ut  (§  70,  4)  :  as, 

spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis  (Tusc.  i.),  I  hope  that  will  be 
our  happy  lot. 


166  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [59:    I. 


59.     CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

A  Conditional  Sentence  (or  Clause)  is  one  beginning 
with  IF,  or  some  equivalent. 

1.  Protasis  and  Apodosis.  In  a  conditional  sentence, 
the  clause  containing  the  condition  is  called  the  Protasis ;  and 
that  containing  the  conclusion  is  called  the  Apodosis :  as, 

si  qui  exire  volunt  [PROTASIS],  conivere  possum  [APODOSIS] 
(Cat.  i-i.  12),  if  any  -wish  to  depart,  I  can  keep  my  eyes  shut. 

a.  The  Protasis  is  regularly  introduced  by  the  conditional 
particles  si,  if;  sin,  but  if;  nisi  (ni),  unless.  But  a  clause  in- 
troduced by  an  Indefinite  Relative  (as  quisquis,  whoever},  a 
Relative  or  Concessive  Conjunction  (cum,  since,  quamvis,  al- 
though), a  Participle,  or  an  Imperative,  is  treated  as  a  conditional 
clause :  as, 

qusecunque  causa  vos  hue  attulisset,  laetarer  (De  Or.  ii.  4), 
/  should  be  glad,  'whatever  cause  had  brought  you  here  [i.e.  if 
any  other,  as  well  as  the  one  which  did]. 

philosophia,  cui  qui  pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia 
possit  degere  (Cat.  M.  i),  philosophy,  -which  IF  any  one  obeys, 
he  -will  be  able  to  spend  his  ivhole  life  'without  vexation. 

virtutem  qui  adeptus  erit  ubicunque  erit  gentium  a  nobis  dili- 
getur  (N.  D.  i.  44),  if  any  one  shall  have  attained  virtue,  &c. 

[For  Implied  Conditions,  see  §  60.] 

NOTE.  —  The  Indefinite  Relative,  whoever,  whatever,  whenever,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  conditional  expression,  equivalent  to  if  any  one,  if  at  ant/ 
time,  &c.,  as  is  seen  in  the  analogy  of  the  Greek  6f  av,  OTO.V,  and  in  the 
structure  of  relative  as  compared  with  conditional  clauses.  In  the 
Statutes  of  Massachusetts,  for  instance,  the  phrase  "Whoever  shall" 
has  been  substituted  for  the  old  form  "  IF  any  person  shall,"  &c. 

b»  The  Apodosis,  being  the  main  clause,  depends  in  form  on 
the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence,  which  may  require  a 
Participle,  Infinitive,  or  Phrase  :  as, 

quod  si  prseterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sol&  decima 

legione  iturum  (B.  G.  i.  40),  but  if  no  one  else  -would  follow, 

he  'would  go  ivith  the  tenth  legion  alone. 
si  quos  adversum  prcelium  commoveret,  hos  reperire  posse  (id.), 

if  the  loss  of  a  battle  alarmed  any,  they  might  find. 
sepultura  quoque  prohibituri,  ni  rex  humari  jussisset  (Q^  C. 

viii.  2),   intending  also  to  deprive  him  of  burial,  unless  the 

king  had  ordered  him  to  be  interred. 


CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES.  167 

2.  Particular  and  General  Conditions.  The  sup- 
position contained  in  a  Protasis  may  be  either  particular  or 
general. 

a.  A  Particular  supposition  refers  to  a  definite  act  (or  a  definite 
series  of  acts)  occurring  at  some  definite  time :  as, 

si  hsec  condicio  consulates  data  est  .  .  .  feram  libenter  (Cat. 
iv.  i),  if  this  condition  has  been  imposed  on  the  consulship, 
I  iv  ill  bear  it  willingly. 

b.  A  General  supposition  refers  to  any  one  of  a  class  of  acts, 
which  may  occur  (or  may  have  occurred)  at  any  time :  as, 

si  vero  habet  aliquod  tamquam  pabulum  studi  atque  doctrinse, 
nihil  est  otiosa  senectute  jucundius  (Cat.  M.  14),  indeed,  if 
it  have  some  sustenance  (as  it  were)   of  study  and  learning, 
nothing  is  more  cheerful  than  an  old  age  of  leisure. 
NOTE.  —  These  two  classes  of  conditions  are  distinguished  logically  ; 
and  in  most  languages  are  also  distinguished  grammatically,  —  but  only 
as  to  Present  and  Past  Conditions.     In  Latin,  in  particular  conditions, 
present  or  past  tenses  of  the  Indicative  are  regularly  used  in  Prota- 
sis, where  no  opinion  is  intimated  of  its  truth  or  falsity ;  and  the 
Apodosis  may  take  any  form  of  the  verb  which  can  be  used  in  an  in- 
dependent sentence.     In  general  conditions,  also,  referring  to  Present  or 
Past  time,  the  Indicative  is  for  the  most  part  used  both  in  Protasis 
and  Apodosis.     (Compare  Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar,  §  220.) 

c.  Classification.     The  principal  forms  of  Conditional  Sen- 
tences may  be  exhibited  as  follows  :  — 

1.   PRESENT  OR  PAST  CONDITIONS. 

(a)    Simple   statement  (  si  .f  d*st  bene  est,  if  he  is  [now]  hare, 
(nothing   implied  {    .  «*  "  S?V 

as  to  fulfilment):    /  S1  aderrat  (ffmt)   bene  erat,    ,/  he 
\      was  [then]  here,  it  was  well. 

(6)    Supposition    con-  (  si  ,aaew!ft  bene  esset,  if  lie  were  [now] 
trarvtofactfcondi    <       here,  it  would  be  well. 
tioii  not  fulfilled):    )  «  adfuisset  bene  fuisset,  if  he  had 

\      [then]  been  here ,  it  would  have  been  well. 

2.   FUTURE  CONDITIONS. 

(a)  More  vivid  (prob-  f  si  aderit  bene  erit,  if  lie  is  [shall  be] 

able):  \     here,  it  will  be  welL 

(b)  Less  vivid  (improb-  (  si  adsit  bene  sit,  if  he  should  [hereafter] 

able) :  (      be  here,  it  would  be  well. 

3.   GENERAL  SUPPOSITIONS. 

(a)  Indefinite  subject:  j  si  1>OC  d'°as  bene  est-  V ' one  saVs  this< 
(      it  is  well. 

i  Repeated  Action :  jsi  h°c   *iceret  bene ,   erat  (rare)    */ 
(      [whenever]  tie  said  this,  it  was  well. 


168  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [59:   3. 

3.  Present  and  Past  Conditions.  A  present  or  past 
condition  may  be  simply  stated,  implying  nothing  as  to  its 
fulfilment ;  or  it  may  be  stated  so  as  to  imply 'that  it  is  not  or 
was  not  fulfilled. 

a.  In  the  statement  of  a  condition  whose  falsity  is  NOT  implied, 
the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  Indicative  are  used  in  Protasis ; 
the  apodosis  expressing  simply  what  is,  was,  or  will  be,  the  result 
of  the  fulfilment  (G.  221)  :  as, 

si  tu  exercitusque  valetis,  bene  est  (Fam.  v.  2),  if  you  and  the 

army  are  well,  it  is  'well. 
si  justitia  vacat,  in  vitio  est  (Off.  i.  19),  if  justice  be  wanting, 

it  [bravery]  'is  in  fault. 

si  placet  .  .  .  videamus  (Cat.  M.  5),  if  you  please,  let  us  see. 
fuerit  hoc  censoris,  si  judicabat  (Div.  i.  16),  grant  that  it  was 

the  censor's  duty  if  he  judged,  &c. 
quicquid  jurarunt  ventus  et  unda  rapit  (Prop.  ii.  28),  whatever 

they  have  sworn  [i.e.  if  they  have  sworn  anything],  the  winds 

and  waves  sweep  away. 

b.  In  the  statement  of  a  supposition  known  to  be  false,  the  Im- 
perfect  and    Pluperfect    subjunctive    are    used. — the   imperfect 
referring  to  present  time,  the  pluperfect  to  past  (G.  222)  :  as, 

quse  si  exsequi  nequirem,  tamen  me  lectulus  oblectaret  meus 
(Cat.  M.  n),  if  I  could  not  [now]  follow  this  [an  active  life], 
yet  my  couch  would  afford  me  pleasure. 

nisi  tu  amisisses,  nunquam  recepissem  (id.  4),  unless  you  had 
lost  it,  I  should  not  have  recovered  it. 

si  me  urn  consilium  auctoritasque  valuisset,  tu  hodie  egeres, 
nos  liberi  essemus,  respublica  non  tot  duces  et  exercitus 
amisisset  (Phil.  ii.  15),  if  my  judgment  and  authority  had 
prevailed  [as  they  did  not],  you  would  this  day  be  a  beggar, 
we  should  be  free,  and  the  republic  would  not  hfive  lost  so 
many  leaders  and  armies.  ! 

NOTE.  —  The  implication  of  falsity,  in  this  construction,  is  not  in- 
herent in  the  Subjunctive;  but  comes  from  the  transfer  of  a  future \ 
condition  to  past  time.  Thus  the  time  for  the  happening  of  the  condi-i 
tion  has,  at  the  time  of  writing,  already  passed ;  so  that,  if  the  con- 
dition remains  a  condition,  it  must  be  contrary  to  fact.  So  forms 
implying  a  future  frequently  take  the  place  of  the  subjunctive  in 
apodoeis  in  this  construction  (see  c,  below). 

c.  In  many  cases  the  imperfect  refers  to  past  time,  both  in  pro- 
tasis and  apodosis,  especially  when  a  repeated  or  continued  action 
is  denoted,  or  when  the  condition  if  true  would  still  exist :  as, 

hie  si  mentis  esset  suae,  ausus  esset  educere  exercitum  (Pis.  21). 
if  he  were  of  sane  mind  would  he  have  dared  to  lead  out  tht 
army  ? 


59:  3-]  CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES.  169 

non  concidissent,  nisi  illud  receptaculum  classibus  nostris 
pateret  (Verr.  ii.  i),  [the  power  of  Carthage]  -would  not 
have  fallen,  unless  that  station  had  been  open  to  our  fleets. 

d.  The  past  tenses  of  the  indicative  in  Apodosis  (after  a  sub- 
junctive in  Protasis)  may  be  used  to  express  what  ought  to  have 
been  done,  or  is  intended,  or  is  already  begun :  as, 

si  Romae  privatus  esset  hoc  tempore,  tamen  is  erat  deligendus 

(Manil.  17),  if  ke  [Pompey]w£re  at  this  time  a  private  citizen 

in  Rome,  yet  he  ought  to  be  appointed. 
quod  esse  caput  debebat,  si  probari  posset  (Fin.  iv.  9),  -what 

ought  to  be  the  main  point  if  it  could  be  proved. 
si  licitum  esset  matres  veniebant  (Verr.  vi.  49),  the  mothers 

iv  ere  coming  if  it  had  been  allowed. 
in  amplexus  filias  ruebat,  nisi  lictores  obstitissent  (Ann.  xvi. 

32),  he  -was  about  rushing  into  his  daughter's  arms,  unless  the 

lictors  had  opposed. 

REMARK.  —  In  this  use,  the  imperfect  indicative  corresponds  in 
time  to  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and  the  perfect  or  pluperfect 
indicative  to  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  (the  tenses  of  the  subjunc- 
tive may,  however,  be  used  as  well ;  see  Note,  above)  :  as, 
satius  erat  (esset),  it  were  better. 

e.  This  use  is  regular  with  all  verbs  and  expressions  denoting 
.  the  necessity ',  propriety ',  desirableness,  duty,  possibility,  of  an  action 

' — including  the  two  periphrastic  conjugations  (see  page  83)  — 
where  it  is  implied  that  what  was  necessary,  &c.,  has  not  been  done. 
It  is  sometimes  carried  still  further  in  poetry :  as,  - 

nam  nos  decebat  lugere  (Tusc.  i.  47),  it  -would  befit  us  to  mourn. 
si  non  alium  jactaret  odorem,  laurus  erat  (Georg.  ii.  133),  *"/ 
-were  a  laurel,  but  for  giving  out  a  different  odor. 

NOTE.  —  Observe  that  all  these  expressions  contain  the  idea  of 
Futurity.     Compare  note  under  6. 

e*   So  the  participle  in  urus  with  fui  is  equivalent  to  a.  plu- 
perfect subjunctive.    Hence,  when  the  Apodosis  is  itself  a  dependent 
clause,  requiring  the  subjunctive,  a  pluperfect  subjunctive  may  be 
[;   represented  by  the  Future  Participle  with  the  subjunctive  of  esse 
I    (compare  apodosis  in  Indirect  Discourse,  §  67,  I,  c)  :  as, 

quid  enim  futurum  fuit  [=  fuisset],  si  ...  (Liv.  ii.  i),  what 
would  have  happened,  if,  &c. 

neque  ambigitur  quin  ...  id  facturus  fuerit,  si  ...  (ib.),  and 

no  doubt  he  would  have  done  it,  if,  &c. 

.  ex  quo  intellegi  potest  quam  acuti  natura  sint,  qui  ha?c 
sine  doctrina  credituri  fuerint  (Tusc.  i.  21),  hence  it  may  be 
understood  how  keen  they  are  by  nature,  who,  without  instruc- 
tion, would  have  believed  this.  [Here  the  condition  is  con- 
tained in  the  words  sine  doc.tr -ind.~\ 

8 


170  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [59:  4. 

adeo  parata  seditio  fuit,  ut  Othonem  raptnri  fueriiit,  ni  incerta 
noctis  timuissent  (Tac.  H.  i.  26),  so  far  advanced  was  the 
conspiracy,  that  they  would  have  seized  upon  Otho,  had  they 
not  feared  the  hazards  of  the  night  [in  the  direct  discourse, 
rapuissent  ni  timuissent  \. 

4.  Future  Conditions*  A  Future  condition  may  either 
make  a  distinct  supposition  of  a  future  case,  the  apodosis 
expressing  what  will  be  the  result ;  or  the  supposition  may  be 
less  distinct  and  vivid,  the  apodosis  expressing  what  would  be 
the  result  in  the  case  supposed. 

a.  If  the  condition  is  stated  vividly,  so  as  to  he  conceived  as 
actually  about  to  take  place,  the  Future  Indicative  is  used  in  both 
protasis  and  apodosis  (G.  223)  :  as, 

sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  6),  ive  shall  be  healed  if  ive 
-wish. 

quod  si  legere  aut  audire  voletis  .  .  .  reperietis  (Cat.  M.  6), 
if  you  'will  read  or  hear,  you  .'will  find. 

b»  The  Present -subjunctive  expresses  a  future  condition  less 
vividly,  or  as  less  probable,  than  when  the  future  indicative  is 
used  (G.  224)  :  as, 

hsec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat  (Cat. 
i.  8),  if  thy  country  should  thus  speak  with  thee,  ought  she  not 
to  prevail  f 

quod  si  quis  deus  mini  largiatur  .  .  .  valde  recusem  (Cat.  M.23), 
but  if  some  god  -were  to  grant  me  this,  I  should  earnestly 
refuse. 

REMARK. — The  present  subjunctive  sometimes  stands  in  prota- 
sis with  the  future  in  apodosis. 

€•  If  the  conditional  act  is  regarded  as  completed  before  that 
of  the  apodosis  begins,  the  future  perfect  is  substituted  for  the 
future,  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  for  the  present :  as, 

sin,  cum  potuero,  non  venero,  turn  erit  inimicus  (Att.  ix.  2), 

but  if  I  do  not  come  ivhen  I  can,  he  ivill  be  unfriendly. 
si  non  feceris,  ignoscam  (Fam.  v.  19),  if  you  do  not  do  it,  I  ivill 
excuse  you. 

REMARK.  —  This  is  a  very  common  construction  in  Latin,  owing 
to  the  tendency  of  the  language  to  represent  an  action  as  com- 
pleted, rather  than  as  in  progress. 

d.  Any  form  denoting  future  time  may  stand  in  the  apodosis 
of  a  future  condition  (so  the  participles  in  dus  and  rus,  and  verbs 
of  necessity,  possibility,  and  the  like)  :  as, 

non  possum  istum  accusare  si  cupiam  (Verr.  v.  41),  I  cannot 
accuse  him  if  I  should  desire. 


CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES.          %  171 

alius  finis  constituendus  est  si  prius  quid  maxime  reprehendere 
Scipio  solitus  sit  dixero  (Lael.  i6J,  another  limit  must  be  set  if 
I  shall  first  state  what  Scipio  was  most  wont  to  blame. 

€•  Rarely  the  perfect  is  used  (rhetorically)  in  apodosis  with  a 
present  or  even  future  in  protasis,  representing  the  conclusion  as 
already  accomplished :  as, 

si  hoc  bene  fixum  in.  animo  est,  vicistis  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  if  this 
is  -well  fixed  in  your  minds,  you  have  conquered. 

si  eundem  [animum]  habueritis,  vicimus  (id.  43),  if  you  shall 
have  kept  the  same  spirit,  we  have  conquered. 

f.  Frequently  the  present  subjunctive  of  a  future  condition 
becomes  imperfect  by  the  sequence  of  tenses  or  some  other  cause 
(retaining  the  same  force  relatively  to  past  time)  :  as, 

non  poterat  nisi  vellet  (B.  C.  iii.  44),  -was  not  able  unless  he 
wished.  * 

Caesar  si  pet^rs^.  .  .  non  quicquam  proficeret  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2), 
if  even  Ccesar  W^r^  to  ask  he  would  gain  nothing.  [Here 
the  construction  is  not  contrary  to  fact,  but  is  simply  si" 
petat  non  proficiat,  thrown  into  past  time.] 

tumulus  apparuit  ...  si  luce  palam  iretur  hostis  prseventurus 
erat  (Liv.  xxii.  24),  a  hill  appeared  .  .  .  if  they  should  go 
openly  by  light  the  enemy  would  preVwit.  [Independent  of 
apparuit,  this  would  be,  si  eatur,  prahjenturus  est,  for  prce- 
veniat.]  « V 

5.  General  Conditions*  General  conditions  are  distin- 
guished in  Latin  in  only  two  cases  :  viz,, 

a.  Indefinite  Subject.   The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  second 
person  singular,  to  denote  the  act  of  an  indefinite  subject  (you  = 
any  one) .     Here  the  present  Indicative  of  a   general  truth  may 
stand  in  the  apodosis  (G.    225)  :  as, 

mens  prope  uti  ferrum  est:  si  exerceas  conteritur;  nisi  exer- 
ceas,  rubiginem  contrahit  (Cato  de  Mor.),  the  mind  is  very 
like  iron  :  if  you  use  it,  it  wears  away  j  if  you  don't  use  it,  it 
gathers  rust. 

virtutem  necessario  gloria,  etianisi  tu  id  non  agas,  consequitur 
(Tusc.  i.  38),  glory  necessarily  follows  virtue,  even  if  that  is 
not  one's  aim. 

si  prohibita  impune  transcenderis,  neque  metus  ultra  neque 
pudor  est  (Ann.  iii.  54),  if  you  once  overstep  the  bounds  •with 
impunity,  there  is  no  fear  nor  shame  any  more. 

si  cederes  placabilis  (Tac.  Ann.),  \Jie  was~\  easily  appeased  if 
one  yielded. 

b.  Repeated  Action.     In  later  writers  (not  in  Cicero),  the 
Imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  are  used  in  protasis,  with  the 


172  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [60:    I. 

imperfect  indicative  in  apodosis,  to  state  a  repeated  or  customary 
action:  as, 

accusatores,  si  facultas  incideret,  pcenis  adficiebantur  (Ann. 
vi.  30),  the  accusers,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  were 
visited  -with  punishment. 

quemcunque   lictor  prehendisset,  tribunus  mitti  jubebat  (Liv. 
.  iii.  n),  whomever  the  lictor  had  seized,  the  tribune  ordered 
to  be  let  go. 

c*  In  all  other  cases,  General  Suppositions  —  including  those 
introduced  by  Indefinite  Relatives  —  take  the  indicative. 

60.     IMPLIED  CONDITIONS. 

In  many  sentences  properly  conditional,  the  sub- 
ordinate member  is  not  expressed  as  a  conditional 
clause  ;  but  is  stated  in  some  other  form  of  words,  or 
is  implied  in  the  nature  of  the  thought. 

1.  Condition  Disguised.  The  condition  is  often  con- 
tained in  some  other  form  of  words  than  a  regular  Protasis, 
in  the  same  clause  or  sentence. 

a.  The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  relative,  participial,  or 
other  qualifying  clause  :  as, 

facile  me  paterer — vel  ipso  quaerente,  vel  apud  Cassianos  judices 

—  pro  Sex.     Roscio  dicere  (Rose.  Am.  30),  /  -would  readily 

allow  myself  to  speak  for  Roscius,  IF  he,  &c. 
non  mihi,  nisi  admonito,  venisset  in  mentem  (De  Or.  ii.  42), 

it  would  not  have  come  into  my  mind,  unless  [I  had  been] 

admonished  [=  nisi  admonitus  essem]. 
.  nulla  alia  gens  tanta  mole  cladis  non  obruta  esset  (Liv.  xxii. 

54),  there  is  no  other  people  that  would  not  have  been  crushed 

by  such  a  'weight  of  disaster  [i.e.  IF  it  had  been  any  other 

people], 
nemo  unquam,  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis,  se  pro  patri& 

offerret  ad  mortem  (Tusc.  i.  15),  no  one,  -without  great  hope 

of  immortality,  would  ever  expose  himself  to  death  for  his 

country. 
quid  hunc  paucorum  annorum  accessio  juvare  potuisset  (Lael. 

3),  what  good  could  the  addition  of  a  few  years  have  done 

him  ?    [if  he  had  had  them.] 

&•   The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  wish,  or  expressed  as 
a  command,  by  the  imperative  or  hortatory  subjunctive  :  as, 
utinam  quidem  fuissem!  molestus  nobis  non  esset  (Fam.  xii. 
3),  I  wish  I  had  been  [chief]  :  he  would  not  now  be  troubling 
us  [i.e.  if  I  had  been]. 


60:   1,2.]  IMPLIED    CONDITIONS.  173 

roges  enim  Aristonem,  neget  (Fin.  iv.  25),  for  ask  Aristo^  and 

he  -would  deny. 
tolle  hanc  opinionem,  luctum  sustuleris  (Tusc.  i.  13),  remove 

this  notion,  and  you  will  have  done  a-way  grief. 
naturam  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurret  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  10), 

drive  out  nature  -with  a  pitchfork,  still  she  'will  ever  return. 
manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria 

(Cat.  M.  7),  old  men  keep  their  mental  powers*  only  let  them 

keep  their  zeal  and  diligence. 

NOTE.  —  This  usage  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive in  Protasis;  the  subjunctive  being  used  first,  as  in  §  57,  3, 
while  the  conditional  particle  is  a  form  of  an  indefinite  pronoun. 

c*   Rarely,  the  condition  is  stated  in  an  independent  clause :  as, 
rides:   majore  cachinno  concutitur   (Juv.  iii.  100),  you  laugh: 

he  shakes  -with  louder  laughter. 
de  paupertate  agitur :   multi  patientes  pauperes  commemor- 

antur  (Tusc.  iii.  24),  we  speak  of  poverty :  many  patient  poor 

are  mentioned. 

2.  Condition  Omitted*  The  condition  is  often  wholly 
omitted,  but  may  be  inferred  from  the  course  of  the  argument. 

REMAKK.  —  Under  this  head  belong  all  the  apparently  inde- 
pendent uses  of  the  subjunctive  not  mentioned  in  §  57,  2.  In  this 
use  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  especially  common,  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  present,  referring  to  the  immediate  future ;  the  imperfect  to 
past  time  (not  to  present,  as  in  §  57,  3). 

a.  Potential  Subjunctive.  The  present  and  perfect  sub- 
junctive (often  with  forsitan  or  the  like)  are  used  to  denote  an 
action  as  possible;  also,  the  second  person  singular  of  all  the 
tenses,  denoting  an  indefinite  subject :  as, 

hie  quaerat  quispiam  (N.  D.  ii.  53),  here  some  one  may  ask. 
ut  aliquis  fortasse  dixerit  (Off.  iii.  6),  as  one  may  perhaps  say. 
forsitan   haec  illi  mirentur  (Verr.  v.  56),   they  may  perchance 

marvel  at  these  things. 

turn  in  lecto  quoque  videres  susurros  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  8),  then  on 
each  couch  you  might  see  'whisperings. 

b»  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  cautious,  modest,  or  hypothetical 
statement  (conjunctivus  modestice) :  as, 

pace  tua  dixerim  (Mil.  38),  I  -would  say  by  your  leave. 
'.     baud  sciam  an  (De  Or.  i.  60),  /  should  incline  to  think. 

tu  velim  sic  existimes  (Fam.  xii.  6),  I  would  like  you  to  think  so. 
vellem  adesset  M.  Antonius  (Phil.  i.  7),  I -wish  Anthony -were 
here   [here  vellem  implies   an   impossible  wish    in   present 
time]. 

'  haec  erant  fere  quse  tibi  nota  esse  vellem  (Fam.  xii.  5),  this  is 
about  what  I  want  you  to  know  [here  vellem  is  simply  vclim 
transferred  to  past  time  on  account  of  erat,  by  connection 
of  tenses,  and  does  not  imply  an  impossible  wish]. 


174  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [60:2.     61. 

c.  The  Indicative  of  verbs  signifying  necessity,  propriety,  and 
the  like,  may  be  used  in  the  apodosis  of  implied  conditions,  either 
future  or  contrary  to  fact :  as, 

longum  est  [sit]  ea  dicere,  sed  ...  (in  Pison.  10),  it  -would  be 

tedious  to  tell,  &c. 
illud  erat  aptius,  aequum  cuique  concedere  (Fin.  iv.  i),  it 'would 

be  more  fitting  to  yield  each  one  his  rights. 
ipsum  enim  exspectare  magnum  fuit  (Phil.  ii.  40),  'would  it 

have  been  a  great  matter  to  'wait  for  himself? 
quanto  melius  fuerat  (Off.  iii.  25),   how  much  better  it  would 

have  been. 
quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum  [corpus  cremari]   (Cat.  M.), 

whereas  on  the  other  hand  mine  ought  to  have  been  burnt  by 

him. 
nam  nos  decebat  domum  lugere  ubi  esset  aliquis  in  lucem  editus 

(Tusc.  i.  48),  for  it  were  fitting  to  mourn  the  house  where  a 

man  has  been  born    [but  we  do  not], 
nunc  est  bibendum  . . .  nunc  Saliaribus  ornare  pulvinar  deorum 

tempus  erat  dapibus  sodales  (Hor.  Od.  i.  37),  i.e.  it  would  be 

time  [if  it  were  for  us  to  do  it,  but  it  is  a  public  act]. 

REMARK.  —  Notice  that,  in  this  construction,  the  imperfect  in- 
dicative refers  to  present  time ;  the  pluperfect  to  simply  past  time, 
like  the  perfect.  Thus  oportebat  means  it  ought  to  be  [now] ,  but 
is  not ;  oportuerat  means  it  ought  to  have  been,  but  was  not. 

d»  The  omission  of  the  protasis  often  gives  rise  to  mixed  con- 
structions :  as, 

peream  male  si  non  optimum  erat  (Hor.  Cat.  ii.  i),  may  I 
perish  if  it  would  not  be  better.  [Here  the  protasis  and 
apodosis  come  under  §  59,  3,  d.  Optimum  erat  is  itself  an 
apodosis  with  the  protasis  omitted.] 

quod  si  in  hoc  mundo  fieri  sine  deo  non  potest,  ne  in  sphaera 
quidem  eosdem  motus  Archimedes  sine  divino  ingenio  potu- 
isset  imitari  (Tusc.  i.  25).  [Here  the  protasis  of  potuisset  is 
in  sine  divino  ingenio .] 


61.     CONDITIONAL  PARTICLES. 

Certain  Particles  implying  a  Condition  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  Subjunctive,  but  upon  several  different 
principles. 

1.  Comparative  ^Particles.  The  particles  of  compari- 
son—  tamquam,  quasi,  quam  si,  acsi,  utsi,  velutsi, 
yeluti,  and  poetic  ceu  —  introduce  conditional  clauses,  of 


,;, 


:   I,  2,  3.]  CONDITIONAL    PARTICLES.  175 

which  the  conclusion  is  omitted  or  implied;   and  take  the 
subjunctive. 

REMARK.  —  Contrary  to  the  English  idiom,  the  present  and 
perfect  subjunctive  are  regularly  used  with  these  particles,  except 
where  the  connection  of  tenses  requires  secondary  tenses :  as, 

tamquam  clausa  sit  Asia  (Fam.  xii.  9),  as  if  Asia  -was  closed. 

tamquam  si  claudus  sim  (Plaut.  Asin.  2),  fust  as  if  I  were  lame. 

quasi  vero  non  specie  visa  judicentur  (Acad.  ii.  18),  as  if  for- 
sooth visible  things  -were  not  judged  by  their  appearance. 

velut  si  coram  adesset  (B.  G.  i.  32),  as  if  he  were  there  present. 

similiter  facis  ac  si  me  roges  (N.  S.  iii.  3),  you  do  exactly  as  if 
you  asked  me. 

asque  ac  si  mea  negotia  essent  (Fam.  xiii.  43),  as  much  as  if  it 
were  my  own  business. 

ceu  cetera  nusquam  bella  forent  (^En.  ii.  438),  as  if  there  were 
no  fighting  elsewhere. 

magis  quam  si  domi  esses  (Att.  vi.  4),  more  than  if  you  were 
at  home. 

ac  si  ampullam  perdidisset  (Fin.  iv.  12),  as  if  he  had  lost  the 
bottle. 


Concessive  Particles.  The  particles  of  concession 
—  although,  granting  that  —  sometimes  take  the  subjunctive, 
but  under  various  constructions :  viz., 

Quamvis  and  ut  (except  in  later  writers)  take  the  hortatory 
subjunctive  (§  57,  2)  ;  licet  is  a  verb,  and  is  followed  by  an 
object-clause  (§  70,  3);  etsi  has  the  same  constructions  as  si 
(§  59) ;  cum  has  a  special  construction  (§  62,  i) ;  quanquam 
takes  the  indicative  (59,  3,  a)  :  as, 

quamvis  ipsi  infantes  sint,  tamen  .  .  .  (Or.  23),  however  incap- 
able themselves  of  speaking,  yet,  &c. 

ut  neminem  ali  aliam  rogasset  (Mil.  17),  even  if  I  had  asked 
no  other. 

licet  ornnes  in  me  terrores  periculaque  impendeant  (Rose.  Am. 
n),  though  all  terrors  and  perils  should  menace  me. 

etsi  abest  maturitas  (Fam.  vi.  18),  though  ripeness  of  age  is 
wanting. 

etsi  nihil  aliud  abstulissetis  (Sull.  32),  even  if  you  had  taken 
away  nothing  else. 


3.    A  Proviso,  introduced  by  mo  do,  dum,  dummodo,  re- 
quires the  Subjunctive:  as, 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut.  16),  provided  the  health  is  good. 
modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  30),  provided  it  [plea- 
sure] be  not  after  the  manner  of  cattle. 


176  SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB.  [61:  4.      62. 

oderint  dum  metuant  (Off.  i.  28),  let  them  hate,  if  only  they  fear. 
dum  de  patris  morte  qustreretur  (Rose.  Am.  41),  let  the  inquiry 

only  be  of  a  father's  death. 
dummodo  inter  me  atque  te  murus  intersit  (Cat.  i.  5),  provided 

only  the  city  wall  is  between  us. 

NOTE.  —  The  Subjunctive  with  modo  is  a  hortatory  Subjunctive ; 
with  dum  and  dummodo,  a  development  from  the  Subjunctive  in 
temporal  clauses. 

4.  The  use  of  some  of  the  more  common  Conditional 
Particles  may  be  stated  as  follows:  — 

a.  Si  is  used  for  affirmative,  nisi  and  si  non  for  negative  con- 
ditions. With  nisi,  the  negative  belongs  rather  to  the  Apodosis, 
—  i.e.  the  conclusion  is  true  except  in  the  case  supposed ;  with 
si  non,  the  Protasis  is  negative,  — i.e.  the  conclusion  is  limited  to 
the  case  supposed.  (The  difference  is  often  only  one  of  emphasis.) 
Nisi  is  never  used  if  the  clause  has  a  concessive  force.  Ni  is  an 
old  form,  reappearing  in  poets  and  later  writers,  and  in  a  few  con- 
ventional phrases.  Sometimes  nisi  si  occurs. 

6.  Nisi  vero  and  nisi  forte  —  sometimes  nisi  alone  —  regu- 
larly introduce  an  objection,  or  exception,  ironically,  and  take  the 
Indicative. 

c.  Sive  .  .  .  sive  (seu)  introduce  conditions  in  the  form  of  an 
alternative.  They  have  no  peculiar  construction,  but  may  be  used 
with  any  kind  of  condition,  or  with  different  kinds  in  the  two 
branches,  often  also  without  a  verb. 

cf.  Of  the  concessive  particles,  the  compounds  of  si  are  used 
in  all  the  forms  of  protasis  ;  quanquam  regularly  introduces  only 
conceded  facts,  and  hence  takes  the  Indicative ;  quamvis,  quan- 
tum vis,  quamlibet,  ut,  cum,  and  libet,  take  idiomatic  construc- 
tions corresponding  to  their  original  meaning.  Later  writers, 
however,  frequently  use  all  these  particles  like  the  compounds  of 
si,  connecting  them  with  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  condition.  Even  Cicero  occasionally  uses 
quanquam  with  the  Subjunctive. 


62.     RELATIONS  OP  TIME. 

Temporal  clauses  are  introduced  by  particles  which 
are  almost  all  of  relative  origin  ;  and  are  construed 
like  other  relative  clauses,  except  where  they  have 
developed  into  special  constructions. 


62:    I,  2.]  RELATIONS    OF   TIME.  177 

Temporal  Particles  are  the  following :  —  ubi,  ut  (ut  primum, 
ut  semel),  simul  atque  (sirnul  ac  or  simul  alone),  cum 
(quom),  antequam,  priusquam,  postquam  (posteaquam), 
dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu,  quando. 

1.  The   particles  ubi,   ut,   cum,   quando,   either  alone 
or  compounded  with  -cunque,  are  used   as   indefinite   rela- 
tives, and  have  the  constructions  of  Protasis  (§  59)  :  as, 

cum  rosam  viderat,  turn  inciperc  ver  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  v.  10), 
whenever  he  had  seen  a  rose,  he  thought  Spring  was  begun 
[general  condition]. 

cum  id  malum  esse  negas  (Tusc.  ii.  12),  ivhen  you  [the  indi- 
vidual disputant]  deny  it  to  be  an  evil. 

cum  videas  eos  .  .  .  dolore  non  frangi  (id.  27),  ivken  you  see 
[indefinite  subject]  that  those  are  not  broken  by  pain,  &c. 

quod  profecto  cum  me  nulla  vis  cogeret,  facere  non  auderem 
(Phil.  v.  18),  -which  I  would  surely  not  venture  to  do,  as  long 
as  no  force  compelled  me  [supposition  contrary  to  fact]. 

id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  in  fines  eorum  emittebat  (Liv.  i.  32), 
ivhen  he  had  said  this,  he  [used  to\-cast  the  spear  into  their 
territories  [repeated  action]. 

REMARK.  —  So  est  cum,  fuit  cum,  &c.,  are  used  in  general 
expressions  like  est  qui,  sunt  qui  (§  65). 

2.  Temporal  clauses  of  absolute  time  take  the  Indicative ; 
those  of  relative  time,  the  Subjunctive. 

(For  the  definition  of  absolute  and  relative  time,  see  §  58,  I,  9.) 

NOTE.  —  This  distinction  is  not  made  in  other  languages,  but  it 
may  be  made  clear  in  the  two  following  expressions  :  1.  When  was 
the  great  fire  in  London  ?  Ans.  When  Charles  II.  was  king  (absolute 
time).  2.  When  Charles  II.  was  king  (relative  time),  a  great  fire  broke 
out  in  London.  In  the  first  case  the  reign  of  Charles  is  referred  Jo  as 
an  absolute  fixed  date,  known  to  the  hearer;  while  in  the  second  the 
time  is  not  so  fixed,  but  is  given  as  relative  to  the  event  narrated  by  the 
main  verb,  which  alone  denotes  absolute  time.  In  this  construction,  the 
Subjunctive  describes  the  time  by  its  characteristics  (as  in  §  65,  2),  and 
thus  is  a  branch  of  the  Subjunctive  of  result.  Hence  this  qualitative 
character  of  the  temporal  clause  often  reappears  and  occasions  the 
Subjunctive,  where  the  idea  of  relative  time  would  not  naturally  be 
expected  :  as,  turn,  cum  HABERET  hcec  respublica  Luscinos,  &c. . . .  et  turn, 
cum  EH  ANT  G 'atones,  &c.  Here  the  former  clause  describes  the  char- 
acter of  the  age  by  its  men  (at  a  time  when  there  were  such  men) ;  in 
the  latter,  the  individual  men  are  present  to  the  mind  (at  the  time  of 
the  Catos,  &c.). 

a.  The  particles  postquam  (posteaquam),  ubi,  ut  (ut 
primum,  ut  semel),  simul  atque  (simul  ac  or  simul  alone), 
introduce  clauses  of  absolute  time,  and  take  the  Indicative  (usually 
the  narrative  tenses,  the  perfect  and  the  historical  present) :  as, 


178  SYNTAX   OF   THE    VERB.  [62:  2. 

milites  postquam  victoriam  adepti  sunt,  nihil  reliqui  victis 
fec£re  (Sail.  Cat.  n),  when  the  armies  had 'won  the  victory, 
they  left  nothing  to  the  vanquished. 

Pompeius  ut  equitatum  suum  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excess-it  (B.  C. 
iii.  94),  ^vhen  Pompey  sa^v  his  cavalry  beaten,  he  left  the  army. 

REMARK.  —  !•  Those  particles  may  also  take  the  imperfect, 
denoting  a  continued  state  of  things,  and  the  pluperfect,  denoting 
the  result  of  an  action  completed,  in  the  Indicative  :  as, 

postquam  instructi  utrimque  stabant,  duces  in  medium  pro- 
cedunt  (Liv.  i.  23),  ^vhen  they  stood  in  array  on  both  sides, 
the  generals  advance  into  the  midst. 

P.  Africanus  posteaquam  bis  consul  et  censor  fuerat  (Div.  in 
Csec.  21),  -when  Africanus  had  been  [i.e.  had  the  dignity  of 
having  been]  twice  consul  and  cetisor. 

postquam  id  difficilius  visum  est,  neque  facultas  perficiendi 
dabatur,  ad  Pompeium  transierunt  (B.  C.  iii.  60),  w/ie?i  this 
seemed  too  hard,  and  no  means  of  effecting  it  were  given,  they 
passed  over  to  Pompey. 

post  diem  quintum  quam  barbari  iterum  male  pugnaverant 
(=  victi  sunt),  legati  a  Boccho  veniunt  (Jug.  no),  the  Jifth 
day  after  the  barbarians  'were  beaten  the  second  time,  envoys 
came  from  Bocchus. 

2.  Rarely  these  particles  denote  relative  time,  and  take  the 
Subjunctive :  as, 

posteaquam  maximas  aedificasset  ornassetque  classes  (Manil. 
4),  having  built  and  equipped  mighty  fleets. 

b.  Cum  (quom),  TEMPORAL,  meaning  when,  introduces  both 
absolute  and  relative  time,  and  takes  either  mood,  —  the  Indica- 
tive of  the  present  and  perfect,  the  Subjunctive  of  the  imperfect 
and  pluperfect:  as, 

cum  occiditur  Sex.  Roscius,  ibidem  fuerunt  servi  (Rose.  Am. 

61),  when  Roscius  was  slain,  the  slaves  were  on  the  spot. 
nempe  eo  [lituo]  regiones  direxit   turn  cum  urbem  condidit 
(Div.  i.  17),  he  traced  with  it  the  quarters  [of  the  sky]  at  the 
time  he  founded  the  city. 
cum  servili  bello  premeretur  (Manil.  n),  -when  she  [Italy]  was 

under  the  load  of  the  Servile  war. 
inde  cum  se  in  Italiam  recepisset  (id.  12),  when  he  had  returned 

thence  to  Italy. 

cum  incendisses  cupiditatem  meam  .  .  .  turn  discedis  a  nobis 
(Fam.  xv.  21),  while  you  had  inflamed  my  eager ?iess,  yet  you 
withdrew  from  us. 

NOTE.  —  The  Present  takes  the  Indicative  because  present  time  is 
generally,  from  its  very  nature,  defined  in  the  mind ;  and  it  is  only 
when  the  circumstances  are  described  as  causal  or  adversative  (see 
below,  §  65,  2,  e)  that  the  Subjunctive  is  used.  The  Perfect  takes 
the  Indicative  as  the  tense  of  narrative,  as  with  postquam,  &c.  The 
Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are,  from  their  nature,  fitter  to  denote  rela- 
tive time. 


62:   2.]  RELATIONS    OP   TIME.  179 

REMARK.  —  !•  But  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  may  denote 
absolute  time,  and  then  are  in  the  Indicative :  as, 

res  cum  haec  scribebam  erat  in  extremum  adducta  discrimen 
(Fam.  xii.  6),  at  the  time  I  write  [epistolary]  the  affair  -was 
brought  into  great  hazard. 

quern  quidem  cum  ex  urbe  pellebam,  hoc  providebam  animo 
(Cat.  iii.  7),  when  £  -was  about  forcing  him  [conative  im- 
perfect] from  the  city,  I  looked  forward  to  this. 

fulgentes  gladios  hostium  videbant  Decii  cum  in  aciem  eorum 
irruebant  (Tusc.  ii.  24),  the  Decii  saw  the  flashing  swords  of 
the  enemy  when  they  rushed  upon  their  line. 

turn  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant  (Manil.  7), 
at  that  time,  when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes  in  Asia. 

2.  When  the  clauses  are  inverted,  so  that  the  real  temporal 
clause  becomes  the  main  clause,  and  vice  versa,  the  Indicative 
must  be  used  :  as, 

dies  nondum  decem  intercesserant,  cum  ille  alter  filius  infans 
necatur  (Clu.  9),  ten  days  had  not  yet  passed,  when  the  other 
infant  son  was  killed. 

hoc  facere  noctu  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae  repente  in 
publicum  procurrerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  26),  they  were  preparing 
to  do  this  by  night,  when  the  women  suddenly  ran  out  into  the 
streets. 

3.  With  Future  tenses,  there  is  no  distinction  of  absolute  or 
relative  time  ;  and  hence  the  Indicative  is  used  :  as, 

non  dubitabo  dare  operam  ut  te  videam,  cum  id  satis  commode 
facere  potero  (Fam.  xiii.  i),  I  shall  not  hesitate  to  take  pains 
to  see  you,  when  I  can  do  it  conveniently. 

longum  illud  tempus  cum  non  ero  (Att.  xii.  18),  that  long  time 
when  I  shall  be  no  more. 

In  the  other  tenses,  the  distinction  is  of  late  origin :  hence  in 
Plautus  quom  always  takes  the  Indicative  except  where  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used  for  other  reasons. 

c.  In  narration  aiitequam  and  priusquam — also,  in  late  writ- 
ers, dum  and  donee  —  have  the  same  construction  as  cum:  as, 

antequam  tuas  legi  litteras  (Att.  ii.  7),  before  I  read  your  letter. 
nee  ante  finis  fuit  quam  concessere  (Liv.  viii.  13),  there  was  no 

end  until  they  yielded  [regular  with  non  ante  quam,  &c.]. 
antequam  homines  nefarii  de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent, 

in   Macedonian!   perrexi   (Plane.  41),   before  those  evil  men 

could  learn  of  my  coming,  I  arrived  in  Macedonia. 
nee  obstitit  falsis  donee  tempore  ac  spatio  vanescerent  (Tac. 

Ann   ii.  82),  nor  did  he  contradict  the  falsehoods  till  they  died 

out  through  lapse  of  time. 

REMARK.  —  In  reference  to  future  time,  these  particles  take  tfye 
present  and  future  perfect  indicative ;  rarely  the  future  indica- 
tive and  present  subjunctive :  as, 


180  SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB.  [62:   2. 

prius   quam  de  ceteris   rebus   respondeo,   de   amicitia   pauca 

dicam  (Phil.  ii.  i),  before  I  reply  to  the  rest,  I  -will  say  a 

little  of  friendship. 
non  defatigabor  ante  quam  illorum  ancipites  vias  percepero 

(De  Or.  iii.  36),  I  shall  not  iveary  till  I  have  traced  out  their 

doubtful  -ways. 

In  a  few  cases  the  subjunctive  of  protasis  seems  to  be  used :  as, 

priusquam  incipias  consulto  et  ubi  consulueris  mature  facto 
opus  est  (Sail.  Cat.  i),  before  beginning  you  need  reflection, 
and  after  reflecting,  prompt  action. 

tempestas  minatur  antequam  surgat  (Sen.  Ep.  103),  the  storm 
threatens  before  it  rises.  [Compare  §  59,  5,  a.~] 

d»  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  implying  purpose,  take  the  sub- 
junctive (§  64) ;  otherwise,  except  in  later  writers,  the  indica- 
tive. Dum  and  dummodo,  provided,  take  the  subjunctive :  as, 

dum  hsec  geruntur  (B.  G.  i.  46),  while  this  was  going  on. 

donee  rediit  silentium  fuit  (Liv.  xxiii.  31),  there  was  silence 
until  he  returned. 

dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant  (Fin.  v.  29),  so  long  as  the  facts 
remain,  let  them  fashion  words. 

hoc  feci  dum  licuit,  intermisi  quoad  non  licuit  (Phil.  iii.  13), 
/  did  this  so  long  as  it  was  allowed,  I  discontinued  so  long  as 
it  was  not. 

dummodo  sit  polita,  dum  urbana,  dum  elegans  (Brut.  82),  pro- 
vided it  be  polished,  rejined,  elegant. 

REMARK.  —  With  all  temporal  particles,  the  Subjunctive  is  often 
found,  depending  on  other  principles  of  construction. 

e*  Cum — CAUSAL,  meaning  since,  while,  or  although  —  takes 
the  subjunctive  (often  emphasized  by  ut,  utpote,  quippe,  prae- 
sertim):  as, 

cum  solitude  .  .  .  insidiarum  et  metus  plena  sit  (Fin.  i.  20), 

since  solitude  is  full  of  treachery  and  fear. 
cum  primi   ordines  .'.  .  concidissent,  tamen    acerrime  reliqui 

resistebant  (B.  G.  vii.  62),  though  the  jirst  ranks  had  fallen, 

still  the  others  resisted  vigorously- 
nee  reprehendo :  quippe  cum  ipse  istam  reprehensionem  non 

fugerim  (Att.  x.  3),  I  do  not  blame  it:  since  I  myself  did  not 

escape  that  blame. 

But  frequently  in  the  sense  of  quod,  on  the  ground  that,  it  takes 
the  Indicative :  as, 

gratulor  tibi  cum  tantum  vales  apud  Dolabellam  (Fam.  xi  14), 
I  congratulate  you  that  you  are  so  strong  with  Dolabella. 

NOTE.  —  This  causal  relation  is  merely  a  variation  of  the  idea  of 
time,  where  the  attendant  circumstances  are  regarded  as  the  cause. 


63:   I,  2.]  CAUSE    OR   REASON.  181 

/.  Cum  .  .  .  turn,  signifying  both  .  .  .  and,  usually  take  the 
Indicative ;  but  when  cum  approaches  the  sense  of  while  or  though, 
it  may  have  the  Subjunctive  :  as, 

cum  multa  non  probo,  turn  illud  in  primis  (Fin.  i.  6),  -while 
there  are  many  things  I  do  not  approve,  there  is  this  in  chief. 

cum  res  tota  ficta  sit  pueriliter,  turn  ne  efficit  quidem  quod  vult 
(ib.),  while  the  whole  thing  is  childishly  got  up,  he  does  not 
even  make  his  point. 


63.     CAUSE  OR  REASON. 

Causal  clauses  may  take  the  Indicative  or  Subjunc- 
tive according  to  their  construction  ;  the  idea  of  Cause 
being  contained  not  in  the  mood  itself,  but  in  the  form 
of  the  argument,  or  the  connecting  particles. 

1.  The  Causal  Particles  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando 
— and  in  early  Latin  cum  (causal)  —  take  the  Indicative:  as, 

quia  postrema  sedificata  est  (Verr.  iv.  53),  because  it  was  built 

last. 
utinam   ilium  diem  videam,  cum  tibi  agam  gratias  quod  me 

vivere  coegisti  (Att.  iii.  3),    O  that  I  may  see  the  day  when  I 

may  thank  you  that  you  have  forced  me  to  live. 
quoniam  de  utilitate  jam  diximus,  de  efficiendi  ratione  dicamus 

(Or.  Part.  26),  since  we  have  now  spoken  of  [its]  advantage, 

let  us  speak  of  the  method  of  effecting  it. 
quando  ita  vis  di  bene  vortant  (Trin.  573),  since  you  so  wish, 

may  the  gods  bless  the  undertaking. 
quom    tua    res    distrahitur  utinam  te  redisse  salvam  videam 

(id.  617),  since  your1  property  is  torn  in  pieces,  oh,  that  I 

may  see  you  returned  safely  ! 

2.  Clauses  introduced  by  these  particles,  like  any  other 
dependent  clause,  take  the  Subjunctive  of  Indirect  Discourse 
(see  §  67,  i). 

a.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic,  with  its  verb,  in  the  sub- 
junctive, may  have  the  force  of  a  causal  sentence  (see  §  65,  2). 

&•  The  particle  cum,  when  used  in  a  causal  sense,  idiomatically 
takes  the  Subjunctive  (§  62,  2,  e). 


182  SYNTAX   OF   THE    VERB.  [64:   I. 


64.     PURPOSE. 

* 

1.  FINAL  CLAUSES,  or  those  expressing  purpose,  take  the 
Subjunctive  after  relatives  (qui  =  ut  is),  or  the  conjunction 
Ut  (uti),  in  order  that  (negatively  lit  lie  or  ne,  lest)  :  as, 

ab  aratro  abduxerunt  Cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset  (Fin.  ii. 

4),  they  brought  Cincinnatus  from  the  plotigh,  that  he  might 

be  dictator. 
scribebat   orationes   quas   alii    dicerent    (Brut.  56),    he  'wrote 

speeches  for  other  men  to  deliver. 
huic   ne    ubi    consisteret   quidem    contra   te    locum    reliquisti 

(Quinct.  22),  you  have  left  him  no  ground  even  to  make  a 

stand  against  you. 

nihil  habeo  quod  scribam,  I  have  nothing  to  'write. 
habebam   quo   confugerem    (Fam.  iv.  6),  •/  had  [a   retreat] 

'whither  I  might  Jlee. 

ut  ne  sit  impune  (Mil.  12),  that  it  be  not  'with  impunity. 
ne  qua  ejus  adventus  procul  significatio  fiat  (B.  G.  vi.  29),  that 

no  sign  of  his  arrival  may  be  made  at  a  distance. 

REMARK.  —  Sometimes  the  relative  or  conjunction  has  a  correl- 
ative in  the  main  clause  :  as, 

legum  idcirco  omnes  servi  sumus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus 
(Clu.  53),  for  this  reason  ive  are  subject  to  the  laws,  that  ive 
may  be  free. 

ea  causa  .  .  .  ne,  for  this  reason,  lest,  &c. 

NOTE.  —  As  ut  (uti)  is  of  relative  origin,  the  construction  with  ut 
is  the  same  as  that  of  relatives.  That  with  ne  is  perhaps,  in  origin, 
a  hortatory  subjunctive. 

a*  The  ablative  quo  (=  ut  eo)  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in  final 
clauses,  especially  with  comparatives :  as, 

libertate  usus  est,  quo  impunius  dicax  esset  (Quinct.  3),  he 
availed  himself  of  liberty,  that  he* might  bluster  'with  more 
impunity. 

Compare  quominus  (— ut  eo  minus),  after  verbs  of  hinder- 
ing (§  65,  i,  a). 

&•  The  Principal  clause,  upon  which  a  final  clause  depends,  is 
often  to  be  supplied  from  the  context :  as, 

ac  ne  longum  sit  ...  jussimus  (Cat.  iii.  5),  and,  not  to  be 
tedious,  we  ordered,  &c.  [strictly,  "  not  to  be  tedious,  I  say."] 

sed  ut  ad  Dionysium  redeamus,  .  .  .  (Tusc.  v.22),  but  to  return 
to  Dionysius,  &c. 

satis  inconsiderati  fuit,  ne  dicam  audacis  (Phil.  xiii.  5),  it  'was 
the  act  of  one  rash  enough,  not  to  say  daring. 


64:  2.     65.]  CONSEQUENCE    OR    RESULT.  183 

REMARK.  — To  this  principle  belongs  nedum,  still  less,  not  to 
mention  that,  with  which  the  verb  itself  is  often  omitted  :  as, 

nedum  .  .  .  salvi  esse  possimus  (Clu.  35),  much  less  could  -we 

be  safe. 
nedum  isti  .  .  .  non  statim  conquisituri  sint  aliquid  sceleris  et 

flagitii  (Leg.  Ag.  ii.  35),  far  more  will  they  hunt  up  at  once 

some  sort  of  crime  and  scandal. 
nedum  in  mari  et  via  sit  facile  (Fam.  xvi.  8),  still  less  is  it  easy 

at  sea,  and  on  a  journey. 

€•  Final  clauses  easily  become  the  object  of  verbs  of  wishing, 
commanding,  &c.  (see  §  68). 

2.  The  Purpose  of  an  action  is  expressed  in  Latin  in 
various  ways ;  but  never  (except  rarely  in  poetry)  by  the 
simple  Infinitive,  as  in  English.  The  sentence,  they  came  to 
seek  peace,  may  be  rendered  — 

(1)  venerunt  ut  pacem  peterent  .  .  .  [final  clause  with  ut] ; 

(2)  qui  pacem  peterent  [final  clause  with  Relative]  ; 

(3)  ad  petendum  pacem  (rare)  [gerund  with  ad]; 

(4)  ad  petendam  pacem  [gerundive  with  ad]  ; 

1  (5)  pacem  petendi  causa*  [gerund  with  causa]; 

(6)  pacis  petendae  causa  [gerundive  with  causa]  ; 

(7)  pacem  petituri  [future  participle  (not  in  Cicero)]  ; 

(8)  pacem  petitum  [former  supine]. 

*  Or  gratia. 


65o     CONSEQUENCE  OR  RESULT. 

1.  CONSECUTIVE  CLAUSES,  or  those  expressing  result, 
take  the  Subjunctive  after  relatives  or  the  conjunction  ut,  so 
that  (negatively,  ut  non)  :  as, 

nemo  est  tarn  senex,  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere  (Cat. 

M.  7)5  no  one  is  so  old  as  not  to  think  he  can  live  a  year. 
nam   est  innocentia   affectio   talis   animi,  quae  noceat  nemini 

(Tusc.  iii.  8),  for  innocence  is  such  a  quality  of  mind  as  to  do 

harm  to  no  one. 
sunt  alise  causae  quae  plane  emciant  (Top.  15),  there  are  other 

causes,  such  as  to  bring  to  pass. 

REMARK.  —  A  negative  result  is  expressed  by  ut  non.  Some- 
times, when  the  result  is  regarded  as  intended  (though  not  a  pur- 
pose), ut  ne  or  ne  is  used  :  as, 

[librum]   ita  corrigas  ne  mihi  noceat  (Fam.  vi.  7),  correct  the 
book  so  that  it  may  not  hurt  me. 


184  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [65:    1,2. 

hoc  est  ita  utile  ut  ne  plane  illudamur  ab  accusatoribus  (Rose. 
Am.  20),  this  is  so  useful,  that  tve  are  not  utterly  mocked  by 
the  accusers  {i.e.,  only  on  this  condition]. 

«•  The  subjunctive  with  quominus  (=  ut  eo  minus)  may  be 
used,  to  express  a  result,  after  verbs  of  hindering :  as, 

nee  aetas  impedit  quominus  agri  colendi  studia  teneamus  (Cat. 
M.  17),  nor  does  age  prevent  us  from  retaining  an  interest  in 
tilling  the  ground. 

&•  A  clause  of  result  is  introduced  by  quin  after  general 
negatives,  where  quin  is  equivalent  to  qui  (quae,  quod)  non; 
also  after  clauses  denoting  hindrance,  resistance,  doubt,  and  sus- 
pension of  effort  (when  these  clauses  are  also  negative) :  as, 

non  dubitoquin,  I  do  not  doubt  that  [dubito  an,  7 'doubt -whether]* 
aegre  (vix)  abstinui  quin,  I  hardly  refrained  from,  &c. 
nihil  impedit  quin  .  .  .,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent,  &c. 
abesse  non  potest  quin  (Or.  70),  /'/  cannot  be  but  that. 
nihil  est  illorum  quin    [=quod  non]  ego  illi  dixerim  (Plaut. 
Bac.  iii.  9),  there  is  nothing  of  this  that  I  have  not  told  him. 

REMARK.  —  The  above  clauses  of  result  easily  pass  into  Substan- 
tive Clauses,  for  which  see  §  70. 

2.  A  relative  clause  of  Result  is  often  used  to  indicate  a 
characteristic  of  the  antecedent,  even  where  the  idea  of  result 
can  be  no  longer  perceived.  This  is  especially  common 
where  the  antecedent  is  otherwise  undefined :  as, 

neque  enim  tu  is  es,  qui  qui  sis  nescias  (Fam.  v.  12),  for  you 

are  not  such  a  one,  as  not  to  know  ivho  you  are. 
multa  dicunt  quae  vix   intelligant   (Fin.  iv.  i),   they  say  many 

things  such  as  they  hardly  understand. 
paci  quse   nihil   habitura  sit  insidiarum  semper  est  consulen- 

dum  (Off.  i.  n),  we  must  always  aim  at  a  peace  which  shall 

have  no  plots. 
unde  agger  comportari  posset,  nihil  erat  reliquum  (B.  C.  ii. 

15),  there  was  nothing  left,  from  which  an  embankment  could 

be  put  together. 

NOTE.  —  These  cases  of  result  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  In- 
definite Relative  in  protasis  (§  59,  i). 

Such  relative  clauses  of  characteristic  are  used  in    several 
idiomatic  constructions :  viz., — 

«•  After  general  expressions  of  existence  and  non-existence, 
including  questions  implying  a  negative  :  as, 

erant  qui  Helvidium  miserarentur  (Ann.  xvi.  29),  there  were 
some  who  pitied  Helvidius. 


65:   2.     66.]  INTERMEDIATE    CLAUSES.  185 

quis  est  qui  id  non  maximis  e'fferat  laudibus  (LseU  7),  who  is 

there  that  does  not  extol  it  with  the  highest  praises  f 
sunt  alia?  causae  quae  plane  efficiant  (Top.  15),  there  are  other 
•  causes  which  clearly  effect,  &c. 

b*  After  unus  and  solus :  as, 

nil  admirari  prope  res  est  una  solaque  qua?  possit  facere  et 
servare  beatum  (Hor.  Ep.  i.t>),  to  'wonder  at  nothing  is  almost 
the  sole  and  only  thing  that  can  make  and  keep  one  happy. 

c.  After  comparatives  followed  by  quam :  as, 

majores  arbores  csedebant  quam  quas  ferre  miles  posset  (Liv. 

xxviii.  5),  they  cut  larger  trees  than  -what  a  soldier  could 

carry. 
Canachi   signa  rigidiora  sunt  quam  ut   imitentur  veritatem 

(Brut.  18),  the  statues  of  Canachus  are  too  stiff  to  represent 

nature. 

d.  In   expressions   of  restriction   or  proviso,   introduced   by 
Relatives :  as, 

quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know. 

Catonis  orationes,  quas  quidem  invenerim  (Brut.  17),  the 
speeches  of  Cato^  at  least  such  as  I  have  discovered. 

servus  est  nemo,  qui  modo  tolerabili  condicione  sit  servitutis 
(Cat.  iv.  8),  there  is  not  a  slave,  at  least  in  any  tolerable  con- 
dition of  slavery. 

e.  When  the  quality  indicated  is  connected  with  the  action  of 
the  main  clause,  either  as  Cause  on  account  of  which  (since) ,  or  as 
Hindrance  in  spite  of  which  (although):  as, 

O  virum  simplicem  qui  nos  nihil  celet  (Or.  69),  oh,  guileless 
man,  who  hides  nothing  from  us  ! 

egomet  qui  sero  Grsecas  litteras  attigissem  tamen  compjures 
Athenis  dies  sum  commoratus  (De  Or.  18),  I  myself ,  though 
I  began  Greek  literature  late,  yet,  dec.  [lit.,  a  man  who~]. 

/.  Dignus,  indignus,  aptus,  idoneus,  take  a  clause  of  result 
with  a  relative  (rarely  with  ut)  ;  in  the  poets  the  Infinitive  :  as, 

idoneus  qui  impetret  (Manil.  \Q>),  fit  to  obtain. 

dignum  notari  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  3),  worthy  to  be  stigmatized. 

66.     INTERMEDIATE  CLAUSES. 

A  Relative  or  other  subordinate  clause  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  when  it  expresses  the  thought  of  some 
other  person  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  or  when  it  is 
an  integral  part  of  a  Subjunctive  clause  or  equivalent 
Infinitive. 


186  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [66:    I,  2. 

1.  The    Subjunctive   is   used  in  intermediate  clauses   to 
express  the  thought  of  some  other  person  — 

tt.   In  subordinate  clauses  in  Indirect  Discourse  (see  §  67) . 
&•   When  the  clause  depends  upon  another  containing  a  wish, 
a  command,  or  a  question  expressed  indirectly,  though  not  indirect 
discourse  proper :  as, 

animal  sentit  quid  sit  quod  deceat  (Off.  i.  6),  an  animal  feels 

'what  it  is  that  is  fit. 

hunc  sibi  ex  animo  scrupulum,  qui  se  dies  noctesque  stimulet 
ac  pungat,  ut  evellatis  postulat  (Rose.  Am.  2),  he  begs  you  to 
pluck  from  his  heart  this  doubt  that  goads  and  stings  him  day 
and  night.  [Here  the  relative  clause  is  not  a  part  of  the 
Purpose  expressed  in  evellatis^  but  is  an  assertion  made  by 
the  subject  of  postulat.'} 

€•   When  the  main  clause  of  a  quotation  is  merged  in  the  verb 
of  saying,  or  some  modifier  of  it :  as, 

nisi  restituissent  statuas,  vehementer  iis  minatur  (Verr.  iii.67), 

he  threatens  them  violently  unless  they  should  restore  the  statues. 

[Here  the  main  clause,  "that  he  will  inflict  punishment,"  is 

contained  in  minatur.~\ 
prohibitio  tollendi,   nisi  pactus  esset,  vim  adhibebat  pactioni 

(id.  iv.  14),   the  forbidding  to  take  away  unless  he  came  to 

terms  gave  force  to  the  bargain. 

d.  With  a  reason  or  an  explanatory  fact  introduced  by  a  rela- 
tive or  by  quod  (rarely  quia)  :*as, 

Favonius  mihi  quod  defendissem  leviter  succensuit  (Att.  iii.  i), 

Favonius  gently  chided  me  for  my  defence. 
Psetus  omnes  libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit 

(id.),  Pcetus  presented  me  all  the  books  his  father  had  left. 
REMARK.. —  Under  this  head,  even  what  the  speaker  himself 
thought  under  other  circumstances  may  have  the  subjunctive.  So 
also  with  quod,  even  the  verb  of  saying  may  take  the  subjunctive. 
To  this  use  also  belong  non  quia,  non  quod,  introducing  a  reason 
expressly  to  deny  it.  Non  quo,  non  quin,  introduce  a  result  clause, 
but  with  nearly  the  same  meaning  as  non  quod :  as, 

pugiles  ingemiscunt,  non  quod  doleant,  sed  quia  .  .  .  (Tusc.  ii. 

23),  boxers  groan  not -with  pain,  but,  &c. 
non  quia  philosophia  ,  .  .  percipi  non  posset  (id.  i.  i),  not  that 

philosophy  cannot  be  found,  &c. 
non   quoniam   hoc  sit  necesse   (Verr.   ii.  9),   not  that  this  is 

necessary. 

NOTE.  —  This  usage  probably  originates  in  apodosis,  the  condition 
being  the  supposed  truth  of  the  speaker,  the  main  subject. 

2.  A  clause  depending  upon  another  subjunctive  clause 
(or  equivalent  Infinitive)  will  also  take  the  subjunctive  if  it 
is  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  that  clause :  as, 


66:   2.      67.]  INDIRECT    DISCOURSE.  187 

non  ptignabo  quominus  utrum  velis  eligas  (Div.  C.  18),  I  'will 
not  oppose  your  taking  'which  you  will. 

imperat,  dum.res  adjudicetur,  hominem  ut  asservent :  cum 
judicatum  sit,  ad  se  adducant  (Verr.  iv.  22),  he  orders  them 
'while  the  affair  is  under  judgment ';  to  keep  the  man  ;  'when  he 
is  judged-,  to  bring  him  to  him. 

etenim  quis  tarn  dissolute  animo  est,  qui  haec  cum  videat, 
tacere  ac  neglegere  possit  (Rose.  Am.  n) ,  for  -who  is  so  reck- 
less of  spirit,  that  when  he  sees  these  things,  he  can  keep  silent 
and  pass  them  by  ? 

si  tibi  hoc  Siculi  dicerent,  nonne  id  dicerent  quod  cuivis  pro- 
bare  deberent  (Div.  C.  6),  if  the  Sicilians  said  this  to 
you,  -would  they  not  say  a  thing  -which  they  must  prove  to 
everybody  ? 

mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos  qui  sint  in  prceliis 
interfecti  (Or.  44),  *'/  is  the  custom  at  Athens  for  those  to  be 
publicly  eulogized  -who  have  been  slain  in  battle. 

NOTE.  —  The  subjunctive  in  this  use  is  either  a  Protasis  or  Apodosis, 
and  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  clause  on  which  it  depends,  —  or 
at  least  of  its  original  nature.  In  all  cases  except  purpose  and  result, 
this  is  clearly  seen.  In  these,  the  case  is  undoubtedly  the  same ;  as 
the  Purpose  has,  of  course,  a  future  sense,  and  the  Result  is  a  branch 
of  apodosis.  (See  "Essay  on  the  Latin  Subjunctive/'  page  27.) 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  this  construction  and  the 
preceding.  Tims,  in  imperat  ut  ea  fiant  quce  opus  essent,  essent  may 
stand  for  sunt,  and  then  will  be  Indirect  Discourse  (under  i,  6) ;  or 
it  may  stand  for  erunt,  and  will  then  be  Protasis  (under  2). 

• 
67.    INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

A  Direct  Quotation  is  one  which  gives  the  exact 
words  of  the  original  speaker  or  writer.  An  Indirect 
Quotation  is  one  which  adapts  the  original  words  to 
the  construction  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  are 
quoted. 

REMARK. — The  term  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  (oratio  obliqua) 
is  used  to  designate  all  clauses  —  even  single  clauses  in  a  sentence 
of  different  construction  —  which  indirectly  express  the  word  or 
thought  of  any  person  other  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  or  even 
his  own  under  other  circumstances.  But  it  is  more  strictly  used 
to  include  those  cases  only  in  which  the  form  of  Indirect  Quotation 
is  given  to  some  complete  proposition  or  citation,  which  may  be 
extended  to  a  narrative  or  address  of  any  length,  —  as  found  in  the 
Speeches  of  Caesar  and  Livy,  — the  form  being  dependent  on  some 
word  of  saying,  &c.,  with  which  it  is  introduced. 

The  term  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  (oratio  recta)  includes  all  other, 
forms  of  expression,  whether  narration,  question,  excla, 
command. 


188  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [67:    I. 

1.  Indirect  Narrative.  In  a  Declaratory  Sentence  in- 
indirect  discourse,  the  principal  verb  is  in  the  Infinitive,  and 
its  subject  in  the  Accusative.  All  subordinate  clauses  take 
the  Subjunctive :  as, 

esse  nonnullos  quorum  auctoritas  plurimum  valeat  (B.  G.  i.  17), 
there  are  some,  whose  influence  most  prevails.  [In  direct  dis- 
course, sunt  nonnulli  .  .  .  valet.~\ 

nisi  jurasset,  scetus  se  facturum  [esse]  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  i. 
47),  he  thought  he  should  incur  guilt,  unless  he  should  take 
the  oath  [direct,  nisijuravero,faciam\. 

Stoici  negant  quidquam  esse  bonum,  nisi  quod  honestum  sit 
(Fin.  ii.  21),  the  Stoics  assert  that  nothing  is  good  but  what 
is  right.  [The  verb  nego  is  used  in  preference  to  dice  with 
a  negative.] 

a.  Subject- Accusative.  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  in 
Indirect  Discourse  must  regularly  be  expressed,  even  though  it  is 
wanting  in  the  Direct :  as, 

orator  sum,  I  am  an  orator ;  [dicit]  se  esse  oratorem,  [he  says] 
he  is  an  orator. 

But  rarely,  it  is  omitted,  when  it  would  be  easily  understood :  as, 

ignoscere  imprudentia  dixit  (B.  G.  iv.  27),  he  said  he  pardoned 
their  rashness. 

rogavi  pervenissentne  Agrigentum  :  dixit  pervenisse  (Verr.  iv. 
12),  /  asked  -whether  they  [the  curtains]  had  come  to  Agri- 
gentum :  he  answered  that  they  had. 

REMARK. — After  a  relative,  or  quani  (than),  where  the  verb 
would  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  main  clause,  it  is  usually  omitted, 
and  its  subject  is  attracted  into  the  accusative :  as, 

te  suspicor  eisdem  rebus  quibus  meipsum  commoveri  (Cat. 
M.  i),  I  suspect  that  you  are  disturbed  by  the  same  things  as  /. 

fr.  Relative  Clauses.  A  subordinate  clause  merely  explana- 
tory, and  containing  statements  which  are  regarded  as  true  inde- 
pendently of  the  quotation,  takes  the  Indicative.  It  often  depends 
merely  upon  the  feeling  of  the  writer  whether  he  will  use  the  in- 
dicative or  subjunctive :  as, 

quis  neget  hsec  omnia  quae  videmus  deorum  potestate  admm- 
istrari  (Cat.  iii.  9),  who  can  deny  that  all  these  things  we  see 
are  ruled  by  the  power  of  the  gods  ? 

cujus  ingenio  putabat  ea  quae  gesserat  posse  celebrari  (Arch.  9), 
by  whose  genius  he  thought  that  those  deeds  which  he  had  done 
could  be  celebrated.  [Here  the  fact  expressed  by  quce gesserat, 
though  not  explanatory,  is  felt  to  be  true  without  regard  to 
the  quotation :  qua  gessisset  would  mean,  what  Marius 
thought  he  had  done.] 


67:    I.}  INDIRECT   DISCOURSE.  189 

REMARK.  —  Some   clauses   introduced  by  relatives  are  really 
independent,  and  take  the  accusative  and  infinitive.     Rarely,  also, 
subordinate  clauses  take  this    construction.      The  infinitive  con- 
struction is  regularly  continued  after  a  comparative  with  quam :  as, 
Marcellus  requisivisse  dicitur  Archimedem    ilium,  quern  cum 
audisset  interfectum  permoleste  tulisse  (Verr.  iv.  58),  Mar- 
cellus is  said  to  have  sought  for  Archimedes,  and  when  he 
heard  that  he  was  slain,  to  have  been  greatly  distressed. 
unumquemque  nostrum  censent  philosophi  mundi  esse  par- 
tem,  ex  quo  [=  et  ex  eo]  illud  natura  consequi  (Fin.  iii.  19), 
the  philosophers  say  that  each  one  of  us  is  a  part  of  the  uni- 
verse, from  which  this  naturally  follows. 

quemadmodum  si  non  dedatur  obses  pro  rupto  se  foedus  habi- 
turum,  sic  deditam  inviolatam  ad  suos  remissurum  (Liv.  ii. 
J3)»  [be  says]  as  in  case  the  hostage  is  not  given  up  he  will 
consider  the  treaty  as  broken,  so  if  given  up  he  will  return 
her  unharmed  to  her  friends. 

addit  se  priiis  occisum  iri  ab  eo  quam  me  violatum  iri  (Att.  ii. 
20),  he  adds  that  he  himself  will  be  killed  by  him,  before  1 
shall  be  injured. 

The  subjunctive  with  or  without  ut  also  occurs  with  quam. 
(see  §  70).  WT^^- 

€•   Conditional  Sentences.    In   a  conditional  se^mce,  the 
Indicative  in  APODOSIS  is  in  any  case  representejl^By  the  \ 
spending  tense  of  the  Infinitiye.     The  Subjunctive  is  represen 
by  the  Future  Participle  with  fuisse  for  the  pluperfect,  and  the 
Future  Infinitive  for  the  other  tenses  (compare  the  use  of  the  par- 
ticiple  in  urus   with  fui  for   the  pluperfect  subjunctive).     The 
PROTASIS,  as  a  dependent  clause,  is  in  all  cases  Subjunctive :  as, 
se  non  defuturum  [esse]  pollicetur,  si  audacter  dicere  velint 
(B.  C.  i.  i),  he  promises  not  to  fail,  if  they  iv ill  speak  their 
minds  boldly  [non  dee'ro  si  voletis]. 

NOTE.  —  The  future  infinitive,  representing  the  imperfect  subjunc- 
tive in  Protasis,  is  for  some  reason  very  rare,  and  only  four  or  five 
examples  occur  in  classic  authors.  On  the  contrary,  the  form  with 
fuisse  is  quite  common. 

d ,  Questions.  A  Question  coming  immediately  after  a  verb 
of  asking  or  the  like  is  treated  as  an  Indirect  Question  (see 
below,  2)  ;  but  questions  —  generally  rhetorical  —  coming  in 
course  of  a  long  indirect  discourse  are  treated  like  Declaratory 
Sentences :  as, 

num  etiam  recentium  injuriarum  memoriam  fse]  deponere 
posse  (B.  G.  i.  14],  could  he  lay  aside  the  memory  of  recent 
wrongs?  [num  possum?] 

quern  signum  daturum  fugientibus?  quern  ausurum  Alexandro 
succedere  (Q^C.  iii.  5),  who  will  give  the  signal  on  the  re- 
treat ?  who  will  dare  to  succeed  Alexander  ? 


190  SYNTAX   OF    THE    VERB.  [67:   2. 

REMARK.  —Generally  real  questions,  expecting  an  answer 
(chiefly  in  the  second  person),  take  the  subjunctive.  Questions 
asked  by  the  dubitative  subjunctive  must  retain  the  subjunctive 
(see  2,  b)  :  as, 

quid   sibi   vellent   (B.  G.  i.  44),   'what  did  they  -want?    [quid 
vultis?] 

2.  Indirect  Questions.  An  Indirect  Question  takes  its 
verb  in  the  Subjunctive:  as, 

quid  ipse  sentiam  exponam  (Div.  i.  6),  /  will  explain  '-what  I 

think  [direct,  quid  sentio~\. 
id  possetne  fieri  consuluit  (id.  7),  he  consulted -whether  it  could 

be  done  [direct,  potestne~\. 
quarn  sis  audax  omnes  intellegere  potuerunt  (Rose.  Am.  31), 

all  could  understand  how  bold  you  are. 
doleam  necne  doleam  nihil  interest  (Tusc.  ii.  12),  it  is  of  no 

account  'whether  I  suffer  or  not. 
incerti  quidnam  esset  (Jug.  49),  uncertain  what  it  'was. 

REMARK.  —  An  Indirect  Question  is  any  sentence  or  clause, 
introduced  by  an  interrogative  word  (pronoun,  adverb,  or  particle), 
depending  immediately  on  a  verb,  or  on  any  expression  implying 
uncertainty  or  doubt. 

In  grammatical  form,  exclamatory  sentences  are  not  distin- 
guished  from  interrogative,  as  in  the  third  example  given  above. 

«•  The  Future  Indicative  is  represented  in  indirect  questions 
by  the  participle  in  urus  with  the  subjunctive  of  esse,  —  rarely  by 
the  simple  subjunctive :  as, 

prospicio  qui  cdncursus  futuri  sint  (Div.  in  CZEC.),  I  foresee 

'what  throngs  there  will  be  [erunt]. 
quid  sit  futurum  eras,  fuge  quserere  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9),  forbear  to 

ask  what  will  be  on  the  morrow  [erit,  or  futurum  est]. 

&•  The  Dubitative  Subjunctive  referring  to  future  time  remains 
unchanged  except  in  tense  :  as, 

[quaeritur]    utrum    Carthago    diruatur,  an  Carthaginiensibus 

reddatur  (De  Inv.  i.  12),  [the  question  is]  shall  Carthage  be 

destroy  ed*  or  restored  to  the  Carthaginians. 
nee  quisquam  satis  certum  habet,  quid  aut  speret  aut  timeat 

(Liv.  xxii.  7),  nor  is  any  one  assured  what  he  shall  hope  or 

fear.     [Here  the  participle  with  sit  could  not  be  used.] 
incerto  quid  peterent  aut  vitarent  (Liv.  xxviii.  36),  since  it  was 

doubtful  [abl.  abs  ]  what  they  should  seek  or  shun. 

c.  The  Subject  of  an  indirect  question  is  often,  in  colloquial 
usage  and  in  poetry,  attracted  into  the  main  clause  as  Object 
(accusative  of  anticipation) :  as, 

n6sti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit  (Fam.  viii.   10),  you  know 
how  slow  Marcellus  is.  —  In  like  manner, 


67:  2,  3-]  INDIRECT    DISCOURSE.  191 

potestne  igitur  earum  rerum  quare  futurae  sint  ulla  esse  prse- 
sensio  (Div.  ii.  5),  can  there  be,  then,  any  foreknowledge  as 
to  those  things,  -why  they  will  occur  ? 

REMARK.  —  In  some  cases  the  Object  becomes  Subject  by  a 
change  of  voice,  and  an  apparent  mixture  of  relative  and  inter- 
rogative construction  is  the  result :  as, 

quidam  saspe  in  parva  pecunia  perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves 

(Lael.  17),  it  is  often  seen,  in  a  trifling  matter  of  money,  how 

unprincipled  some  people  are. 
quemadmodum  Pompeium   oppugnarent  a  me   indicati  sunt 

(Leg.  Ag.  i.  2),   it  has  been  shown  by  me  in  what  way  they 

attacked  Pompey. 

d.  In  early  Latin  and  poetry,  questions  which  elsewhere  would 
have  the  Subjunctive  as  indirect  often  have  the  Indicative :  as, 

non  reputat  quid  laboris  est  (Amph.  172),  he  does  not  consider 

what  a  task  it  is. 
vineam  quo  in  agro  conseri  oportet  sic  observato  (Cato  R.R  6), 

in  what  soil  a  vineyard  should  be  set  you  must  observe  thus. 

NOTE.  —  These  cases  are  usually  considered  Direct  questions  ;  but 
they  occur  (as  above)  where  the  question  cannot  be  translated  as 
direct  without  distortion  of  the  meaning. 

€•  A  few  expressions  properly  interrogative  are  used  idiomati- 
cally as  indefinites,  and  do  not  take  a  subjunctive  :  such  are  nescio 
quis,  &c.,  mirum  (or  nimirum)  quam  or  quantum,  immane 
quantum,  &c. :  as, 

qui  istam  nescio  quam  indolentiam  magnopere  laudant  (Tusc. 

iii.  6),  who  greatly  extol  that  painlessness  (whatever  it  is). 
mirum  quantum  profuit  (Liv.  ii.  i),  it  helped  marvellously. 

/«  Occasionally,  a  virtual  indirect  question  is  introduced  by  si 
in  the  sense  of  whether  (like  ifm  English)  :  as, 

circumfunduntur  hostes,  si  quern  aditum  reperire  possent 
(B.  G.  vi.  37),  the  enemy  pour  round  [to  see]  if  they  can  find 
entrance 

visam  si  domi  est  (Heaut.  118),  I  will  go  see  if  he  is  at  home. 

3.  Indirect  Commands.   All  Imperative  forms  of  speech 
I  take  the  Subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse :  as, 

i  reminisceretur  veteris  incommodi  populi  Romani  (B.  G.  13), 
remember  [said  he]  the  ancient  disaster,  &c.  [reminiscere]. 

I  ne  committeret  ut  (ib.),  do  not  [said  he]  bring  it  about  [ne 
commiseris]. 

\  finem  orandi  faciat  (id.  20),  let  him  make  an  end  of  entreaty 
[fac]. 


192 


SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB. 


[68. 


The  following  example  may  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  the  fore- 
going principles  in  a  connected  address :  — 

Indirect  Discourse.  Direct  Discourse. 


Si  pacem  populus  Ronianus 
cum  Helvetiis  faceret,  in  earn 
partem  ituros  atque~  ibi  futuros 
Helvetiosf\\\A  eos  Caesar  con- 
stituisset  atque  esse  voluisset  : 
sin  bello  persequi  perseveraret, 
reminisceretur  et  veteris  incom- 
modi  populi  Romani,  et  pris- 
tinae  virtutis  Helvetiorum.  Quod 
improviso  unum  pagum  ador- 
tus  esset,  cum  ii  qui  flumen 
transissent  suis  auxilium  ferre 
non  possent)  ne  ob  earn  rem  aut 
suce  magno  opere  virtuti  tribue- 
ret,  aut  ipsos  dcspiceret :  se  ita 
a  patribus  majoribusque  suis 
didicisse*  ut  magis  virtute  quam 
dolo  contenderent,  aut  insidiis 
niterentur.  Quare  ne  commit- 
teret,  ut  is  locus  ubi  constitissent 
ex  calamitate  populi  Romani  et 
internecione  exercitus  nomen 
caperet,  aut  memoriam  pro- 
deret.  —  B.  G.4.  13. 


Si  pacem  populus  Romanus 
cum  Helvetiis  faciet,  in  earn 
partem  ibunt  atquesyibi  erunt, 
Helvetii,  ubi  eos  Caesar  constit- 
eritfSitque  esse  voluerit:  sin 
bello  persequi  perseverabit, 
reminiscere  [inquit]  et  veteris 
incommodi  populi  Romani,  et 
pristinae  virtutis  Helvetiorum. 
Quod  improviso  unum  pagum 
adortus  es,  cum  ii  qui  flumen 
transierant  suis  auxilium  ferre 
non  possent,  ne  ob  earn  rem 
aut  tuae  magno  opere  virtuti 
tribueris,  aut  nos  despexeris : 
nos  ita  a  patribus  majoribusque 
nostris  didicimus,  ut  magis  vir- 
tute quam  dolo  contendamus, 
aut  insidiis  nitamur.  Quare, 
ne  commiseris,  ut  hie  locus  ubi 
constitimus  ex  calamitate  populi 
Romani  et  internecione  exerci- 
tus nomen  capiat,  aut  memo- 
riam prodat. 


68.    WISHES  AND  COMMANDS. 

1.  WISHES   are    expressed    by   the    Subjunctive,    often 
strengthened  by  the  particles  ut,  utinam,  0  si  (early  Latin), 
qui ;    the  primary  tenses  being  used  in  reference  to  future 
time,  the  secondary  to  express  a  hopeless  wish,  —  the  imper- 
fect in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  in  past  (see  §  57,  4). 

REMARK.  —  A  periphrasis  with  velim,  vellem,  &c.,  is  some- 
times used  (57,  4,  c). 

2.  COMMANDS  are  expressed  by  the  Imperative  or  Sub- 
junctive (§  57,  3,  7)  ;  PROHIBITIONS  by  the  Subjunctive,  or 
by  a  periphrasis  with  noli  or  cave  (§  57,  7,  a).     The  object 
of  the  command  is  given  in  a  purpose-clause  (§  70,  3)  with 
ut  or  ne,  except  after  jubeo  and  veto  (§  70,  2). 

3.  Indirectly  quoted,  all  these  forms  of  speech  take  the 
Subjunctive  (see  §  67,  3). 


69.    70.]  CLAUSES. 


9.     RELATIVE  CLAUSES. 


Wb 


1.  A  simple  relative,  merely  introducing  a  descriptive  fact, 
takes  the  Indicative. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  appears  more  or  less  frequently  in 
many  relative  clauses   (which  have   been  already  treated). 
These  relatives  always  either — (1)  are  general  relatives  of 
Protasis ;  or  (2)  express  some  logical  connection  between  the 
relative  and  antecedent,  or  (3)  have  no  effect  at  all  upon  the 
construction*     These  constructions  are  — 

!•    General  or  Future  Conditions  in  Protasis  (§§  59,  60,  61). 

2.  a.  Final  Clauses  (§  64). 

&.   Consecutive  Clauses  (§  65). 

c*  Relatives  of  Characteristic  (§  65,  2). 

d*  Relatives  implying  Cause  or  Hindrance  (§  65,  2,  e). 

€•  Temporal  Clauses  of  relative  time  (62,  2). 

3.  a.  Intermediate  Clauses  (§  66). 

&.   Clauses  in  Indirect  Discourse  (§  67) . 


70.     SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

A  Substantive  Clause  is  one  which,  like  a  noun, 
is  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  or  in  apposition 
with  a  subject  or  object. 

REMARK. — The  Infinitive  with  the  Accusative,  though  not 
strictly  a  Clause,  is  equivalent  to  one,  and  may  be  treated  as 
such. 

When  a  substantive  clause  is  used  as  Subject,  the  verb  to  which 
it  is  subject  is  called  Impersonal  (§  39),  and  its  sign,  in  English, 
is  IT  ;  when  it  is  used  as  Object,  it  generally  follows  some  verb 
of  knowing,  fyc.  (§  67,  i)  or  of  wishing  or  effecting,  and  its  sign, 
in  English,  is  THAT,  or  TO  (Infinitive). 

1.  Classification.  Substantive  Clauses  are  of  four 
kinds:  —  1.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive,  denoting  an 
idea  as  thought,  or  spoken  (§  67,  i)  ;  2.  Indirect  Questions 
(67,  2)  ;  3.  The  Subjunctive  with  ut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  or 

9 


194  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [70:    1,2. 

quominus,  denoting  purpose  or  result;  4.  The  Indicative 
with  quod,  denoting  a  fact.  But  the  Infinitive  alone  may 
take  the  place  of  either  1  or  3. 

2.  Accusative  and  Infinitive.  The  Accusative  with 
the  Infinitive  is  used  as  the  Object — 1.  Of  all  verbs  and 
expressions  of  knowing,  thinking,  and  telling  (Indirect  Dis- 
course, §  67,  i)  ;  2.  Of  jubeo  and  veto,  and  rarely  of  other 
verbs  of  commanding,  requesting,  admonishing,  and  the  like ; 
3.  Sometimes  of  verbs  of  wishing:  as, 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri   (B.  G.  I.  22),  he  says  that  the 

height  is  held  by  the  enemy. 
negat  ullos  patere  portus  (Liv.  xxviii.  43),  he  says  that  no  ports 

are  open. 
Labienum  jugum  mentis  adscendere  jubet  (id.  21),  he  orders 

Labiemis  to  ascend  the  ridge  of  the  hill. 
judicem  esse  me  non  doctorem  volo   (Ov.  33),   I -wish  to  be  a 

judge,  not  a  teacher. 

a* '  After  Passives.  If  the  main  verb  is  changed  to  the  pas- 
sive, either  (1)  the  Subject  of  the  infinitive  (like  other  objects  of 
active  verbs)  becomes  nominative,  and  the  infinitive  is  retained ;  or 
(2)  the  passive  is  used  impersonally,  and  the  clause  retained 
as  its  Object.  With  verbs  of  saying,  &c,,  the  former  construction 
is  more  common,  especially  in  the  tenses  of  incomplete  action ; 
with  jubeo  and  veto  it  is  always  used :  as, 

primi  traduntur  arte  quadam  verba  vinxisse  (Or.  13),  they  first 

are  related  to  have  joined  words  'with  a  certain  skill. 
jussus  es  renuntiari  consul  (Phil.  ii.  32),  you  -were  under  orders 

to  be  declared  consul. 
in  lautumias   Syracusanas  deduci  imperantur  (Verr.  v.  27), 

they  are  ordered  to  be  taken  to  the  stone-pits  of  Syracuse. 
hie  accusare  non   est  situs   (Sest.  44),  he  -was  not  allowed  to 

accuse. 
praedicari  de  se  ac  nominari  volunt  (Arch.  10),  they  -wish  to  be 

talked  of  and  known  by  name.     [Here  the  passive  is  used 

impersonally.] 
voluntaria  morte  interisse  creditus  est  (Tac.  H.  iv.  67),  he  was 

thought  to  have  perished  by  voluntary  death. 
nuntiatur  piratarum   naves   esse  in   portu   (Verr.  v.  24),  it  is 

told  that  the  ships  of  the  pirates  are  in  port. 

&•  The  poets  extend  the  use  of  the  passive  to  verbs  which  are 
not  properly  verba  sentiendi:  as, 

colligor  dominse  placuisse  (Ov.  Am.  ii.  6,  61),  it  is  gathered 
[from  this  memorial]  that  I  pleased  my  mistress. 


70:  2,  3-]  SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES.  195 

c.  Such  indirect  discourse  may  depend  on  any  word  implying 
speech  or  thought,  though  not  strictly  a  verb  of  saying,  &c. :  as, 

eos  redire  jubet:  se  in  tempore  adfuturum  esse  (Liv.  xxiv.  13), 
he  orders  them  to  return  [promising]  that  he  will  be  at  hand 
in  season. 

orantes  ut  urbibus  saltern — jam  enim  agros  deploratos  esse  — 
opem  senatus  ferret  (id.  xvi.  6),  praying-  that  the  senate 
'would  bring  aid  to  the  cities  — for  the  fields  [they  said]  were 
already  given  up  as  lost. 

d.  Verbs  of  promising,  expecting,  threatening,  swearing,  and 
the  like,  regularly  take  the  construction  of  Indirect  Discourse, 
contrary  to  the  English  idiom  (§  67,  I,  a) ;  but  sometimes  a  simple 
complementary  infinitive :  as, 

me  spero  liberatum  [esse]  metu  (Tusc.  ii.  27),  /  trust  I  have 

been  freed  from  fear. 
minatur   sese   abire   (Asin.  iii.  3),  he  threatens  to  go  away. 

[Direct,  abeo,  I  am  going  away, ,] 
ex  quibus  sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures  (Lsel.  21), 

from  which  they  hope  to  gain  the  utmost  advantage. 
quern  inimicissimum  futurum  esse  promitto  ac  spondeo  (Mur. 

41),  who   I  promise   and  warrant  will  be  the  bitterest  of 

enemies. 
dolor  fortitudinem  se  debilitaturum  minatur  (Tusc.  v.  27),  pain 

threatens  to  wear  down  fortitude. 

pollicentur  obsides  dare  (B.  G.  iv.  21),  they  promise  to  give  hos- 
tages [compare  Greek  aorist  infinitive  after  similar  verbs.] 

3.  Clauses  of  Purpose.  The  clause  with  ut  (nega- 
tive lie),  developed  from  PURPOSE,  is  used  as  the  Object  of 
all  verbs  denoting  an  action  directed  towards  the  future. 
Such  are  — 

a.  Verbs  of  commanding,  asking,  admonishing,  urging,  and 
in  general  those  denoting  an  influence  upon  some  one  (§  64). 
These  verbs  rarely  take  the  Infinitive  (except  jubeo  and  veto, 
which  take  it  regularly)  :  as, 

his  uti  conquirerent  imperavit  (B.  G.  i.  2),  he  ordered  them  to 

search. 
monent  ut  omnes  suspiciones  vitet  (id.  20),  he  warns  him  to 

avoid  all  suspicion. 

b.  Verbs  of  wishing  and  the  like.     These  take  also  the  simple 
Infinitive  ;  more  commonly  when  the  subject  remains  the  same,  less 
-commonly  when  it  is  different  (see  2,  above)  :  as, 

cupio  ut  impetret  (Capt.  i.  2),  I  wish  he  may  get  it. 
cum   nostri  perspici  cuperent   (B.  G.  iii.  21),  when  our  men 
wished  it  to  be  seen. 


196  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [70:   3. 

mallem  Cerberum  metueres  (Tusc.  i.  6),  I  would  rather  you 

feared  Cerberus. 
quos  non  tarn  ulcisci  studeo  quam  sanare  (Cat.  ii.  8),  whom  I 

do  not  care  so  much  to  punish  as  to  cure. 

c.  Verbs  of  permission,  concession,  and  necessity.     These  take 
also  the  Infinitive  :  as, 

permisit  ut  partes  faceret  (De  Or.  ii.  90),  permitted  him  to 
make  divisions. 

vinum  importari  non  sinunt  (B.  G.  iv.  2),  they  do  not  allow 
wine  to  be  imported. 

nullo  se  implicari  negotio  passus  est  (Lig.  3),  he  suffered  him- 
self to  be  tangled  in  no  business. 

sint  enim  oportet  si  miseri  sunt  (Tusc.  i  6),  they  must  exist,  if 
they  are  wretched. 

REMARK.  —  The  clause  with  licet  (usually  without  ut)  is 
regularly  used  to  express  a  concession  in  the  sense  of  although. 

d.  Verbs  of  determining,  resolving,   bargaining,   which   also 
take  the  Infinitive.     Those  of  decreeing  often  take  the  participle 
in  dus,  on  the  principle  of  indirect  discourse :  as, 

edicto  ne  quis  injussu  pugnaret  (Liv.  v.  19),  having  commanded 
that  none  should  fight  without  orders. 

pacto  ut  victorem  res  sequeretur  (id.  xxviii.  21),  having  bar- 
gained that  the  property  should  belong  to  the  victor. 

Regulus  captivos  reddendos  non  censuit  (Off.  i.  13),  Regulus 
voted  that  the  captives  should  be  returned.  [He  said,  in  giv- 
ing his  opinion,  captivi  non  reddendi  sunt.~\ 

e.  Verbs  of  caution  and  effort.     Those  denoting  an  effort  to 
hinder  may  also  take  quominus  or  ne :  as, 

cura  et  provide  ut  nequid  ei  desit  (Att.  ii.  3),  take  care  and  see 

that  he  lacks  nothing. 
non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  .  .  .  (Tusc.  i.  38),  death 

does  not  deter  the  wise  man  from,  &c. 
ne  facerem  impedivit  (Fat.  i.  i},  prevented  me  from  doing. 

/.  Verbs  of  fearing  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  ne  affirmative 
and  ne  non  or  ut  negative :  as, 

ne  animum   offenderet  verebatur  (B.  G.  i.  19),  he  feared  he 

should  offend  the  mind,  &c. 
vereor  ut  tibi  possim  concedere  (De  Or.  i.  9),  I  fear  I  cannot 

grant  you. 
baud  sane   periculum   est   ne   non   mortem   optandam   putet 

(Tusc.  v.  40),  there  is  no  danger  of  his  not  thinking  death 

desirable. 

REMARK. — The  particle  ut  or  ne  is  often  omitted,  —  generally 
after  verbs  of  wishing,  necessity,  permission ;  with  cave,  die,  fac ; 
and  in  indirect  discourse,  frequently  after  verbs  of  commanding 
and  the  like. 


70:  4-]  SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES.  197 

gr.  With  any  verbs  of  the  above  classes,  the  poets  may  use  the 
Infinitive :  as, 

hortamur  fari  (&n.  ii.  74),  we  exhort  [him]  to  speak. 

4.  Clauses  of  Result.  The  clause  with  lit  (negative 
ut  non,  &c.),  developed  from  RESULT,  is  used  as  the  Object 
of  verbs  denoting  the  accomplishment  of  an  effort :  as, 

commeatus  ut  portari  possent  efficiebat  (B.  G.  ii.  5),  he  made 
it  possible  that  supplies  could  be  bought.  [Lit.,  he  effected 
that,  &c.] 

a.  The  substantive  clause  becomes  the  Subject  of  such  verbs 
in  the  passive ;   and  hence  is  further  used  as  the  subject  of  verbs 
denoting  it  happens,  it  remains,  it  follows,  and  the  like ;  and  even 
of  the  simple  esse  in  the  same  sense,  and  other  phrases :  as, 

sequitur  ut  doceam  (N.  D.  ii.  32),  the  next  thing  is  to  show,  &c. 
accidit  ut  esset  plena  luna  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  it  chanced  to  be  full 

moon. 

accedit  ut  conturber  (Deiot.  i),  besides  this  I  am  troubled. 
reliquum  est  quarta  virtus  ut  sit  ipsa  frugalitas  (id.),  it  remains 

that  the  fourth  virtue  is  thrift. 
quando  fuit  ut  quod  licet  non  liceret  (Gael.  20),  'when  was  it 

that  'what  is  now  allowed  was  not  allowed  ? 

b.  A  result   clause,  with   or  without   ut,   frequently  follows 
quam,  after  a  comparative :    as, 

perpessus  est  omnia  potius  quam  indicaret  (Tusc.  i.  22),  he 
endured  all,  rather  than  betray,  &c. 

c.  A  result  clause  with   ut    is  often  used  elliptically,  in  ex- 
clamations, with  or  without  -ne  (compare  §  57,  8,  g)  :  as, 

quanquam  quid  loquor?   te  ut  ulla  res  frangat  (Cat.  i.  <£)-,yet 

why  do  I  ask  i   that  anything  should  bend  you  ! 
egone  ut  te  interpellem  (Tusc.  ii.  18),  what,  I  interrupt  you  f       ' 

REMARK. — The  infinitive,  in  exclamations,  usually  refers  to 
something  actually  occurring ;  the  subjunctive  to  something  con- 
templated. 

d.  The  phrase  tantum  abest,  it  is  so  far  [from  being  the 
case],  besides   a  subject-clause  (substantive)  with  ut,  regularly 
takes  another  ut-clause  (of  result)  depending  on  tantum :  as, 

tantum  abest  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  usque  eo  difficiles  ac  mor- 
osi  simus,  ut  nobis  non  satisfaciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Or. 
29),  so  far  from  admiring  our  o^vn  matters,  we  are  difficult 
and  captious  to  that  degree,  that  not  Demosthenes  himself 
satisfies  us.  [Here  the  first  ut-clause  depends  directly  on 
abest  j  the  second  on  tantum  ;  and  the  third  on  usque  eo.~\ 


198  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [70:  4. 

e.  The  expressions  facere  ut,  committere  ut,  often  form  a 
periphrasis  for  the  simple  verb  (compare  fore  ut  for  the  future 
infinitive)  :  as, 

invitus  feci  ut  Flamininum  e  senatu  eicerem  (Cat.  M.  12),  it 
was  -with  reluctance  that  I  expelled,  &c. 

/,  Rargly,  a  thought  or  idea  is  considered  as  a  result,  and 
takes  the  subjunctive  with  ut  instead  of  the  accusative  and  infini- 
tive (in  this  case  a  demonstrative  usually  precedes)  :  as, 

altera  est  res,  ut  .  .  .  (Off.  i.  20),  the  second  point  is  that,  &c. 

praeclarum  illud  est,  ut  eos  .  .  .  amemus  (Tusc.  iii.  29),  this  is 
a  noble  thing,  that  we  should  love,  &c. 

quae  est  igitur  amentia,  ut  .  .  .  -what  folly  is  there  then  in  de- 
manding, &c. 

(/,  Verbs  and  other  expressions  which  imply  hindering  and  the 
like,  may  take  quin  when  the  main  verb  is  negative,  formally  or 
virtually:  as, 

facere  non  possum  quin  .  .  .  (Att.  xii.  27),  I  cannot  avoid,  &c. 

nihil  praetermisi  quin  scribam  .  .  .  (Q^  F.  iii.  3),  /  have  left 
nothing  undone  to  write. 

ut  nulla  re  impedirer  quin  (Att.  iv.  2),  that  I  might  be  hin- 
dered by  nothing  from,  &c. 

non  humana  ulla  neque  divina  obstant  quin  (Sail.  Ep.  Mith. 
17),  no  human  or  divine  laws  prevent,  but  that,  &c. 

REMARK.  —  This  usage  is  found  especially  with  the  phrase  non 
dubito  and  similar  expressions  making  a  kind  of  indirect  dis- 
course :  as, 

non  dubitabat  quin  ei  crederemus  (Att.  vi.  2),  he  did  not  doubt 
that  we  believed  him. 

illud  cave  dubites  quin  ego  omnia  faciam  (Fam.  v.  20),  do  not 
doubt  that  I  will  do  all. 

quis  ignorat  quin  (Flacc.  27),  who  is  ignorant  that,  &c.  ? 

neque  ambigitur  quin  Brutus  pessimo  publico  id  facturus  fue- 
rit  si  priorum  regum  alicui  regnum  extorsisset  (Livy,  ii.  i), 
nor  is  there  any  question  that  Brutus,  if  he  had  wrested  the 
kingdom  from  any  one  of  the  former  kings,  would  have  done  it 
with  the  worst  results  to  the  state  [direct  discourse,  fecisset\. 

h.  Some  verbs  and  expressions  may  be  used  either  as  verbs  of 
saying  as  well  as  of  commanding  or  effecting  and  the  like,  and 
may  be  construed  accordingly  :  as, 

sequitur  illico  esse  causas  immutabiles  (Fat.  12),  it  follows 
directly  that  there  are  unalterable  causes.  [The  regular 
construction  with  sequor  used  of  a  logical  sequence.] 

laudem  sapientise  statuo  esse  maximam  (Div.  v.  13),  /  hold 
that  the  glory  of  wisdom  is  the  greatest. 


70:    5-]  SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES.  199 

statuunt  ut  decem  milia  hominum  mittantur  (B.  G.  xii.  21), 
they  resolve  that  10,000  men  shall  be  sent. 

res  ipsa  monebat  tempus  esse  (Att.  x.  8),  the  thing  itself -warned 
that  it  was  time  [monere  ut,  -warn  to  do  something}. 

fac  mihi  esse  persuasum  (N.  D.  i.  27),  suppose  that  I  am  per- 
suaded of  that  [facere  ut,  accomplish  thaf\. 

hoc  volunt  persuadere  non  interire  anitnos  (B.  G.  vi.  13),  they 
-wish  to  convince  that  souls  do  not  perish. 

huic  persuadet  uti  ad  hostes  transeat  (B.  G.  iii.  18),  persuades 
him  to  pass  over  to  the  enemy. 

NOTE.  —  The  infinitive,  with  a  subject,  in  this  construction  is  in- 
direct discourse,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  simple  infinitive 
sometimes  found  with  these  verbs. 

5.  Indicative  with  quod.  The  clause  in  the  Indicative 
with  quod  is  used  (more  commonly  as  Subject)  when  the 
statement  is  regarded  as  a  fact :  as, 

alterum  est  vitium,  quod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium 
conferunt  (Off.  i.  j6),  it  is  another  fault,  that  some  bestow  too 
much  zeal-,  &c.  [Here  ut  with  the  subjunctive  could  be 
used,  meaning  that  they  should,  or  the  accusative  and  infin- 
itive, meaning  to  more  abstractly;  quod  makes  it  a  fact  that 
men  do,  &c.] 

inter  inanimum  et  animal  hoc  maxime  interest,  quod  animal 
agit  aliquid  (Ac.  ii.  12),  there  is  this  chief  difference,  &c., 
that  an  animal  has  an  aim. 

quod  rediit  nobis  mirabiie  videtur  (Off.  iii.  31),  that  he  [Reg- 
ulus]  returned  seems  wonderful  to  us.  [Redisse  would  mean 
he  should  have  returned.] 

a.  In  colloquial  language,  the  clause  with  quod  appears  as 
an   accusative  of  specification,    corresponding    to    the    English 
WHEREAS  :    as, 

quod  de  domo  scribis  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  as  to  what  you  write  of 
the  house. 

quod  mihi  de  nostro  statu  gratularis,  minime  miramur  te  tuis 
pra3claris  operibus  laetari  (Att.  i.  5),  as  to  your  congratulat- 
ing me  on  our  condition,  no  wonder  you  are  pleased  with  your 
pwn  noble  works. 

b.  Verbs  of  feeling  and  its  expression  take  either  quod  (quia) 
or  the  accusative  and  infinitive  (Indirect  Discourse)  :  as, 

quod  scribis  ..  .gaudeo(Q1F.  iii.  i).     I  am  glad  that  you  write. 
quae  perfecta  esse  vehementer  laetor  (Rose.  Am.  47),  I  greatly 

rejoice  that  this  is  finished. 
facio  libenter  quod  earn  non  possum  praeterire  (Leg.  i.  24).     / 

am  glad  that  I  cannot  pass  it  by. 

RKMARK.  —  Rarely,  an  apparent  substantive  clause,  with  miror 

and  similar  expressions,  is  introduced  by  si  (really  a  Protasis)  :  as, 

miror  si  quemquam  amicum  habere  potuit  (Lael.  15),  I  should 

wonder  if  he  could  ever  have  a  friend. 


200  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB.  [71 :  I,  2. 

71.     QUESTIONS. 

Questions  are  introduced  by  Interrogative  Pronouns, 
Adverbs,  or  Particles,  and  are  not  distinguished  by 
the  order  of  words,  as  in  English. 

The  Interrogative  Particles  are,  an,  utrum,  num,  and  the 
enclitic  -ne  (see  page  86).  For  other  interrogative  words,  see 
list,  page  49. 

1.  Interrogative  f  articles.     The  enclitic  -ne  is  used 
in  questions  asked  for  information  merely  ;  nonne,  when  the 
answer  yes,  and  num  when  the  answer  no,  is  expected  or  im- 
plied: as, 

meministine  me  in  senatu  dicere  (Cat.  i.  3),  do  you  remember 

my  saying  in  the  senate  f 
nonne  animadvertis  quam  multi  salvi  pervenerint  (N.  D.  iii. 

37),  do  you  not  observe  how  many  have  come  through  safe  ? 
num  dubium  est  (Rose.  Am.  37),  there  is  no  doubt,  is  there  f 

REMARK.  —  The  interrogative  particle  is  sometimes  omitted: 
as, 

patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis  (Cat.  i.  i),  do  you  not  see  that 
your  plans  are  manifest  ? 

a.  In  Indirect  Questions,  num  loses  its  peculiar  force  :  as, 

qusero  num   aliter  evenirent   (Fat.   3).     /  ask  whether  they 
would  turn  out  differently. 

b.  The  form  of  Indirect  questions  is  the  same  as  that  of  Direct ; 
the  difference  being  only  in  the  verb,  which  regularly  takes  the 
subjunctive  (§  71,  2). 

REMARK. — In  English,  indirect  questions  are  introduced  by 
interrogatives,  or  by  the  particle  whether. 

c.  The  enclitic  -ne  is  often  added  to  interrogative  words  when 
not  required :  as,  utrumne,  numne,  anne. 

d.  The  expressions  nescio  an,  dubito  an,  and  the  like,  incline 
to  the  Affirmative,  —  /  don't  know  but. 

2.  Double  Questions.    In  Double  or  Alternative  Ques- 
tions, utrum  or  -ne,  whether,  stands  in  the  first  member ;  an, 
anne,  or ;  annon,  necne,  or  not,  in  the  second :  as, 

utrum  nescis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas  (Fam.  x.  26),  don't  you 
know  ?   or  do  you  think  nothing  of  it  ? 


71:2,3-]  QUESTIONS.  201 

quaere  servosne  an  liberos  (Rose.  Am.  27).  /  ask  -whether 
slaves  or  free.  [Here  servos  aut  liberos  would  mean,  were 
there  any,  either  slaves  or  free.] 

REMARK.  —  In  direct  questions,    annon    is    more  frequently 
found  in  the  alternative ;  in  indirect,  necne. 

a.  The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted  in  the  first  mem- 
ber ;  when  -ne  (anne,  necne)  may  stand  in  the  second :  as, 

Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  (Manil.  19),  shall  I  say  to  Ga- 

binius  or  to  Pompey  f 
sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  (Tusc.  iii.  18),  are  these  your  words 

or  not  ? 

b.  Sometimes  the  first  member  is  omitted  or  implied ;  and  an 
(anne)  alone  asks  a  question  —  usually  with  indignation  or  sur- 
prise :  as, 

an  tu  miseros  putas  illos  (Tusc.  i.  7),  -what  I  do  you  think  those 
men  wretched? 

c*   The  second  member  may  be  omitted,  when  utrum  asks  a 
question  to  which  there  is  no  alternative  :  as, 

utrum  in  clarissimis  est  civibus  is  quem.  .  .  .  (Place.  19),  is  he 
among  the  noblest  citizens,  whom,  &c. 

d.   The   following  exhibits  the  various   forms  of  alternative 
questions :  — 

utrum  ...  an 

...  an  (anne) 

-ne        ...  an 


3.  Question  and  Answer.  As  there  is  no  word  in 
Latin  meaning  simply  yes  or  no,  in  answering  a  question  the 
verb  is  generally  repeated :  as, 

valetne,  is  he  well  f  valet,  yes  (he  is  well). 

eratne  tecum,  was  he  with  you  ?  non  erat,  no  (he  was  not). 

a.  An  intensive  or  negative   particle   is   sometimes   used  in 
answer  to  a  direct  question :    thus  immo  (nay  but) ,  vero   (in 
truth) ,  or  etiani  (even  so)  may  have  the  meaning  of  yes ;  and  non 
(not),  or  minime  (least-of-all) ,  of  no. 

b.  In  the  answer  to  an  alternative  question,  one  <  member  of 
the  alternative  must  be  repeated  :  as, 

tune  an  frater  erat,  was  it  you  or  your  brother  ? 
ego  [eram],  it  was  I. 

NOTE. —  Tune  aut  pater  would  mean,  was  it  either  of  you? 


202  SYNTAX    OF   THE   VERB.  [72:   I. 


72.     PARTICIPLES. 

The  Participle  expresses  the  action  of  the  verb  in 
the  form  of  an  adjective  ;  but  has  a  partial  distinction 
of  tense,  and  generally  governs  the  case  of  its  verb. 

1.  Distinctions  of  Tense.  The  Present  participle  de- 
notes the  action  as  not  completed;  the  Perfect  as  completed ; 
the  Future  as  still  to  take  place. 

a*  Present.  The  Present  participle  has  several  of  the  irregu- 
lar uses  of  the  present  indicative  (compare  §  58,  2)  :  as, 

quaerenti  mihi   jamdiu  certa  res  nulla  veniebat   in   mentem 

(Fam.  iv.  13),  though  1  had  long  soztght,  no  certain  thing  came 

to  my  mind  (cf.  ib.  a}. 
C.  Flaminio  restitit  agrum  Picentem  dividenti  (Cat.  M.  4),  he 

resisted  Flaminius  while  attempting  to  divide,  &c.   (cf.  £). 
iens  in  Pompeianum  bene  mane  hsec  scripsi   (Att.  iv.  9),  / 

'write  this  when  about  going-  to  my  place  at  Pompeii  (cf.  c). 

Hence  it  is  used  in  late  writers  to  denote  purpose. 

b.  Perfect.     The  Perfect  participle  of  a  few  deponent  verbs 
is  used  nearly  in  the  sense  of  a  Present.     Such  are,  regularly, 
ratus,  solitus,  veritus;   commonly,  fisus,  ausus,  secutus,  and 
occasionally  others,  especially  in  later  writers  :  as, 

cohortatus  milites  docuit  (B.  C.  iii.  80),  encouraging  the  men, 

he  showed,  &c. 

iratus  dixisti  (Mur.  Tp),you  spoke  in  a  passion. 
oblitus  auspicia  (Phil.  i.  13),  forgetting  the  auspices. 
insidias  veritus  (B.  G.  ii.  n),  fearing  ambuscade. 
imperio  potitus  (Liv.  xxi.  2),  holding  the  command. 
ad  pugnam  congressi  (id.  iv.  10),  meeting  in  fight. 
rem  incredibilem  rati  (Sail.  C.  48),  thinking  it  incredible. 

c.  The  present  participle,  wanting  in  the  Passive,  is  usually 
supplied  by  a  clause  with  dum  or  cum ;  rarely  by  the  participle 
in  dus:  as, 

Die,  hospes,  Spartse,  nos  te  hie  vidisse  jacentes, 
Dum  sanctis  patrise  legibus  obsequimur. 

Tell  it,  stranger,  at  Sparta,  that  -we  lie  here  obedient  to  our 
country's  sacred  laws.  [Here  dum  obsequimur  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Greek  nettiontvoi.'] 

crucibus  adfixi  aut  flammandi  (Ann.  xv.  44),  crucified  or  set 
on  fire  [compare  note  under  §  73]. 


72     2,  3-]  PARTICIPLES.  203 

2.  Adjective  use.     The  present  and  perfect  participles 
are  used  sometimes  as  attributes,  nearly  like  adjectives :  as, 

cum  antiquissimam  sententiam  turn  comprobatam  (Div.  i.  5), 

a  view  at  once  most  ancient  and  approved. 
signa   nunquam   fere  ementientia   (id.  9),  signs  hardly  ever 

deceitful. 
auspiciis  utuntur  coactis  (id.  15),  they  use  forced  auspices. 

a.  Thus  they  are  used,  like  adjectives,  as  nouns :  as, 

sibi  indulgentes  et  corpori  deservientes  (Leg.  i.  13),  the  self- 
indulgent,  and  slaves  to  the  body. 

recte  facta  paria  esse  debent  (Par.  iii.  i),  right  deeds  ought  to 
be  like  in  value. 

male  parta  male  dilabuntur  (Phil.  ii.  27),  ill  got,  ill  spent. 

consuetude  valentis  (De  Or.  ii.  44),  the  habit  of  a  man  in  health. 

b.  So,  also,  they  are  connected  with  nouns  by  esse  and  simi- 
lar verbs :  as, 

videtis  ut  senectus  sit  operosa  et  semper  agens  aliquid  et 
moliens  (Cat.  M.  8),  you  see  how  busy  old  age  is,  always 
aiming  and  trying  at  something. 

Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  (B.  G.  i.  i),  all  Gaul  is  divided. 

locus  qui  nunc  saeptus  est  (Liv.  i.  8),  the  place  which  is  now 
enclosed. 

c.  From  this  adjective  use  arise  the  compound  tenses  of  the 
passive,  —  the  participle  of  completed  action  with  the  incomplete 
tenses  of  esse  developing  the  idea  of  past  time :  as, 

interfectus  est,  he  was  (or  has  been}  billed,  lit.,  he  is  having- 
beeri- killed  [i.e.,  already  slain]. 

cL.  In  the  best  writers  (as  Cicero)  this  participle,  when  used 
with  the  tenses  of  completed  action,  retains  its  proper  force  ;  but 
in  later  writers  the  two  sets  of  tenses  (as,  amatus  sum  or  fui) 
are  often  used  indiscriminately :  as, 

[leges]  cum  quce  latse  sunt  turn  vero  quce  promulgate  fuerunt 
(Sest.  25),  the  laws,  both  those  which  -were  proposed,  and 
those  which  were  published.  [The  proposal  of  the  laws  was 
a  single  act:  hence  latce  sunt  is  a  pure  perfect.  The  publish- 
ing, or  posting,  was  a  continued  state,  which  is  indicated  by 
promulgates,  and  fuerunt  is  the  pure  perfect.]  - 

arma  quse  fixa  in  parietibus  fuerant,  humi  inventa  sunt  (Div. 
i.  34)5  the  arms  which  had  been  fastened  on  the  walls  were 
found  upon  the  ground.  [Compare  occupati  sunt  et  fuerunt 
(Off.  i.  17)  :  the  difference  between  this  and  the  preceding 
is,  that  occupatus  can  be  used  only  as  an  adjective.] 

3.  Predicate  use.    The  Present  and  Perfect  participles 
are  often  used  as  a  predicate,  where  in  English  a  clause 


204  SYNTAX    OF   THE    VERB.  [72:   3. 

would  be  used  to  express  time,  cause,  occasion,  condition, 
concession,  characteristic,  manner,  circumstance:  as, 

vereor  ne  turpe  sit  dicere  incipientem  (Mil.  i),  I  fear  it  maybe 

a  dishonor  [to  me]  'when  beginning  to  speak. 
salutem  insperantibus  reddidisti  (Marc.  7),  you  have  restored 

a  safety  -which  we  did  not  hope. 
nemo  ei  neganti  non  credidisset  (Mil.  19),  no  one -would  have 

disbelieved  him  'when  he  denied. 

REMARK.  —  This  use  is  especially  frequent  in  the  Ablative  Ab- 
solute (see  §  54,  10,  6  and  Note).  A  co-ordinate  clause  is  some- 
times compressed  into  a  perfect  participle ;  and  a  participle  with 
a  negative  expresses  the  same  idea  which  in  English  is  given  by 
without:  as, 

imprudentibus  nostris  (B.  G.  v.  15),  while  our  men  were  not 

looking. 
miserum  est  nihil  proficientem  angi  (N.  D.  iii.  5),  it  is  -wretched 

to  vex  one's  self  without  effecting  anything. 
instructos  ordines   in  locum  aequuin  deducit  (Sail.  C.  59),  he 

draws  up  the  lines,  and  leads  them  to  level  ground. 
ut  hos  transductos  necaret  (B.  G.  v.  5),  that  he  might  carry 
them  over  and  put  them  to  death. 

a.  A  noun  and  passive  participle  are  often  so  united  that  the 
participle  and  not  the  noun  contains  the  main  idea  (compare  the 
participle  in  indirect  discourse  in  Greek :  G.  280) :  as, 

ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem  (Liv.  Pref.),  before  the  city 

was  built  or  building. 

illi  libertatem  civium  Romanorum  imminutam  non  tulerunt; 
vos  vitam  ereptam  negligetis  (Manil.  5),  they  did  not  endure 
the  infringement  of  the  citizen^  liberty ;  will  you  disregard 
the  destruction  of  their  life  ? 

So  with  opus :  as, 
opus  est  viatico  facto  (Plaut.  Trin.),  there  is  need  of  laying  in 

provision. 

maturato  opus  est  (Livy  viii.  13),  there  is  no  need  of  haste. 
[Here  there  is  no  noun,  as  the  verb  is  used  impersonally.] 

&.  The  perfect  participle  with  habeo  (rarely  with  other  verbs) 
is  almost  the  same  in  meaning  as  a  perfect  active  :  as, 

fidem  quern  habent  spectatam  jam  et  diu  cognitam  (Div.  C.  4), 
my  fidelity,  which  they  have  proved  and  long  known. 

(Hence  the  perfect  with  have  in  modern  languages.) 

C.  The  perfect  participle,  with  verbs  of  effecting,  effort,  or 
the  like  (also  with  volo  where  esse  may  be  understood,  cf.  §  70, 
3,  6),  expresses  more  forcibly  the  idea  of  the  verb :  as, 

proefectos  suos  multi  missos  fecerunt  (Verr.  iv.  58),  many  dis- 
charged their  officers. 


72:  4,  S-]  PARTICIPLES.  205 

hie  transactum  reddet  omne  (Capt.  345),  he  -will  get  it  all  done. 
me  excusatum  volo  (Verr.  i.  40),  I  'wish  to  be  excused. 

d.  The  present  participle  is  sometimes  nearly  equivalent  to  an 
infinitive,  but  expresses  the  action  more  vividly  (after  facio,  in- 
duco,  and  the  like,  used  of  authors,  and  after  verbs  of  sense) :  as, 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem  (N.  D.  i.  n),  Xenophon 
represents  Socrates  disputing. 

4.  Future  Participle.    The  Future  Participle  (except 
futurus  and  venturus)  is  rarely  used  in  simple  agreement 
with  a  noun,  except  by  later  writers. 

a.  The  future  participle  is  chiefly  used  with  esse  in  a  peri- 
phrastic conjugation  (see  §  40,  a) :  as, 

morere,  Diagora,  non  enim  in  caelum  adscensurus  es  (Tusc.  i. 
46),  die,  for  you  are  not  likely  to  go  to  heaven. 

conclave  illud  ubi  erat  mansurus  si  ...  (Div.  1^15),  that  cham- 
ber 'where  he  'would  have  staid  if,  &c. 

sperat  adolescens  diu  se  victurum  (Cat.  M.  19),  the  young  man 
hopes  to  live  long  (§  67,  i). 

neque  petiturus  unquam  consulatum  videretur  (Off.  iii.  20), 
and  seemed  unlikely  ever  to  seek  the  consulship. 

By  later  writers  it  is  also  used  in  simple  agreement  to  express 
likelihood  or  purpose,  or  even  an  apodosis  :  as, 

cum  leo  regem  invasurus  incurreret  (Q±  C.  viii.   i),  -when  a 

lion  rushed  on  to  attack  the  king. 

rediit  belli  casum  de  integro  tentaturus  (Liv.  xvii.  62),  he  re- 
turned to  try  the  chances  of  war  anew. 

ausus  est  rem  plus  famae  habituram  (Liv.  ii.  10),  he  dared  a 
thing  'which  'would  have  more  repute. 

[See  also  examples  in  §  59,  i,  5.] 

6.  With  past  tenses  of  esse,  the  future  participle  is  often 
equivalent  to  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  (§  59,  3,  e). 

5.  Gerundive.     The  Gerundive,  in  its  participial  or  ad- 
jective use,  denotes  necessity  or  propriety. 

a.  The  gerundive  is  sometimes  used,  like  the  present  and  per- 
fect participles,  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun :  as, 

fortem  et  conservandum  virum  (Mil.  38),  a  brave  man,  and 
'worthy  to  be  preserved. 

&•  The  most  frequent  use  of  the  gerundive  is  with  esse  in  a 
second  periphrastic  conjugation  (§  40,  6) :  as, 

non  agitanda  res  erit  (Verr.  vi.  70),  -will  not  the  thing  have  to 
be  agitated? 


206  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [73:    I,  2i 

REMARK. — The  gerundive  in  this  construction  is  passive  in 
meaning.  But  in  early  Latin,  and  occasionally  elsewhere,  it  is 
used  impersonally,  governing  the  accusative  ;  and  it  is  regularly  so 
used  with  utor,  fruor,  &c.,  governing  the  ablative  (sometimes 
called  the  nominative  of  the  gerund) :  as, 

via  quam  nobis  ingrediendum  sit  (Cat.  M.  2),  the  way  we 

have  to  enter. 
agitandumst  vigilias  (Trin.  869),  I  have  got  to  stand  guard. 

[Compare  Greek  verbal  in  -reog,  G.  281.] 

€•  It  is  also  used  to  denote  purpose  after  verbs  signifying  to 
give,  deliver,  agree  for,  have,  receive,  undertake,  demand:  as, 
redemptor  qui  columnam  illam  conduxerat  faciendam  (Div.  ii. 
21),  the  contractor  'who  had  undertaken  to  make  that  column 
[the  regular  construction  with  this  class  of  verbs]. 
sedem    Castoris    habuit   tuendam    (Verr.   ii.  50),    he   had  the 

temple  of  Castor  to  take  care  of. 
naves  atque  onera  diligenter  adservanda  curabat  (id.  vi.  56), 

he  took  care  that  the  ships  and  cargoes  should  be  kept. 
For  the  Gerundive  after  verbs  of  decreeing,  see  §  70,  3,  d. 
For  the  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE,  see  §  54,  10,  6. 

73.     GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE. 

1.  Gerund*     The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun,  retaining  the 
government  of  the   verb,  and   modified  by  adverbs,  but  in 
grammatical  construction  following  the  same  rules  as  nouns. 

REMARK.  —  The  use  of  the  Gerund,  in  the  oblique  cases,  cor- 
responds to  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  Subject  (§  57,  8,  a) ,  its 
nominative  form  being  found  only  in  the  impersonal  use  of  the 
participle  in  dus:  as, 

ars  bene  disserendi  et  vera  ae  falsa  dijudicandi  (De  Or.  ii.  38), 
the  art  of  discoursing  well,  and  distinguishing  the  true  and 
false.  [Here  the  Verbal  nouns  discoursing  and  distinguish- 
ing, if  used  in  the  nominative,  would  be  expressed  by  the 
infinitive  disserere  and  dijtidicare.^\ 

juveni  parandum.  seni  utendum  est  (Sen.  Ep.  36),  it  is  for  the 
young  to  get,  for  the  old  to  enjoy  (compare  §  51,  3,  4). 

2.  Gerundive.     When  the  gerund  would  have  an  object 
in  the  accusative,  the  Gerundive  is  generally  used  instead, 
agreeing  with  the  noun,  and  in  the  case  which  the  gerund 
would  have  had :  as, 

paratiores  ad  omnia  pericula  subeunda  (B.  G.  i.  5),  readier  to 
undergo  all  dangers.  [Here  subeunda  agrees  with  pericula, 
which  is  itself  governed  by  ad:  the  construction  with  the 
gerund  wouW  be,  ad  subeundum,  &c. ;  ad  governing  the 
gerund,  and  the  gerund  governing  the  accusative  pericula.~\ 


73:  2,  3-]  GERUND    AND    GERUNDIVE.  207 

exercendae  memorise  gratia  (Off.  i.  if),  for  the  sake  of  training 
the  memory.  [Here  the  gerund  construction  would  be,  exer- 
cendi  memoriam.~\ 

REMARK. — The  verbs  utor,  fruor,  &c.  (§  54,  6,  d),  are 
treated  like  verbs  governing  the  Accusative,  as  they  do  in  early 
Latin :  as, 

expetuntur  divitiae  ad  perfruendas  voluptates  (Off.  i.  8),  riches 

are  sought  for  the  enjoyment  of  pleasure. 

NOTE.  —  The  gerundive  construction  is  probably  the  original  one. 
The  Participle  in  dus  seems  to  have  had  a  present  passive  force  as  in 
secundus  (from  sequor),  rotundus,  volvendis,  annis  (Virg.),  flaminandi 
(Tac.),  from  which  the  idea  of  necessity  was  developed  through  that 
of  futurity,  as  in  the  development  of  the  subjunctive.  Consilium  urbis 
delendaz  would  thus  have  meant  a  plan  of  a  city  being  destroyed  [in 
process  of  destruction],  then  about  to  be  destroyed,  then  to  be  de- 
stroyed, then  a  plan  of  destroying  the  city,  the  two  words  becoming 
fused  together  as  in  ab  urbe  conditd.  The  gerund  is  simply  an  imper- 
sonal use  of  the  participle,  in  its  original  present  sense,  retaining  the 
case  of  its  verb,  as  in  agitandum  est  vigilias  ;  quid  opus  est  facto  ? 

3*  Construction.  The  Gerund  (if  of  transitive  verbs, 
with  a  noun  in  government)  and  the  Gerundive  (with  a  noun 
in  agreement)  are  used,  in  the  oblique  cases,  in  the  construc- 
tions of  nouns,  as  follows :  — 

a.  Genitive.  The  Genitive  is  used  after  nouns  or  adjectives 
in  the  constructions  of  the  objective  genitive  (§  50,  3)  ;  more 
rarely  in  the  predicate  after  esse,  or  as  a  genitive  of  quality :  as, 

neque  consilii  habendi  neque  arma  capiendi  spatio  dato  (B.  G. 
iv.  14),  time  being  given  neither  for  forming  plans  nor  for 
taking  arms  [objective  genitive  after  spatio~\. 
ne  conservandse  quidam  patrise  causa  (Off.  i.  45),  not  even  in 

order  to  save  the  country. 

vivendi  finis  est  optimus  (Cat.  M.  20),  it  is  the  best  end  of  life. 
non  tam  commutandarum  rerum  quam  evertendarum  cupidos 
(id.  ii.  i),  desirous  not  so  much  of  changing  as  of  destroying 
the  state. 

quae  res  evertendae  reipublicas  solent  esse  (Verr.  iii.  53),  which 

things  generally  tend  to  the  overthrow  of  the  commonwealth. 

cognoscendse   antiquitatis    (Ann.   ii.   59),   to  study  old  times. 

[Here  gratia  is,  by  a  rare  construction,  omitted.] 
The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  is,  in  a  few  cases,  used  (like  a  noun) 
with  the  genitive  of  an  object  agreeing  neither  in  gender  nor 
number :  as, 

ejus  videndi  cupidus  (Ter.  Hec.),  eager  to  see  her.  fC-Cof**  £  f 
reiciendi   trium   judicum  potestas   (Inv.  ii.  2),   the  power  of 

challenging  three  jurors. 

REMARK.  —  In  the  genitive,  the  construction  of  the  gerund  and 
gerundive  are  about  equally  common. 


208  SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  [73:   3. 

b.  Dative.  The  Dative  is  used  after  the  adjectives  (and 
rarely  nouns)  which  are  followed  by  the  dative  of  nouns  (§  51,  6)  ; 
also,  in  a  few  expressions  after  verbs  :  as, 

prseesse  agro  colendo  (Rose.  Am.  18),  to  take  charge  of  tillage. 

esse  solvendo,  to  be  able  to  pay. 

genus  armorum  aptum  tegendis  corporibus  (Liv.  xxxii.  10),  a 

sort  of  armor  suited  to  the  defence  of  the  body. 
reliqua  tempora  demetiendis  fructibus  et  percipiendis  accom- 
modata  sunt  (Cat.  M.  19),  the  other  seasons  are  fitted  to  reap 
and  gather  in  the  harvest. 
diem  prsestituit  operi  faciendo  (Verr.  ii.  56),  he  appointed  a  day 

for  doing  the  work. 

It  is  also  used  in  certain  phrases  belonging  to  the  civil  law,  after 
nouns  meaning  officers,  offices,  elections*  &c. :  as, 

comitia  consulibus  rogandis  (Div.  i.  17),  elections  for  nomin- 
ating consuls. 
triumvirum   coloniis   deducundis    (Jug.  42),    a  triumvir  for 

leading  out  colonies. 

€•  Accusative.  The  Accusative  is  used  after  the  prepositions 
ad,  inter,  circa,  ob  (rarely  in  and  ante) ;  most  frequently  after 
ad,  denoting  purpose  (compare  §  72,  4)  :  as, 

vivis  non  ad  deponendam  sed    ad   confirmandam    audaciam 
(Cat.  i.  2),  you  live,  not  to  put  off,  btit  to  confirm  your  daring. 
inter  agendum  (Eel.  ix.  24),  iv/iile  driving. 
me  vocas  ad  scribendum  (Or.  10),  you  call  me  to  ivrite. 
d*  Ablative.     The  Ablative  is  used  to  express  means  or  in- 
strument ;  also  manner  (often  by  later  writers,  in  a  sense  equiv- 
alent to  the  present  participle)  ;  after  comparatives ;  and  after  the 
prepositions   ab,    de,   ex,   in,  and    (rarely)   pro  and  cum:   as, 
multa  pollicendo  persuadet  (Jug.  46),  he  persuades  by  large 

promises. 

his  ipsis  legendis  (Cat.  M.  7),  by  reading  these  very  things. 
nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est  (Off. 

i.  15),  no  duty  is  more  important  than  gratitude. 
in  re  gerenda  versari  (Cat.  M.  6),  to  be  employed  in  affairs. 
Latine  loquendo  cuivis   par   (Brut.  34),  equal  to  any  man  in 

speaking  Latin. 
nullis  virtutis  praeceptis  tradendis  (Off.  i.  2),  'without  giving 

any  precepts  of  virtue. 
obscuram  atque  humilem  conciendo  ad  se  multitudinem  (Liv. 

i.  8),  calling  to  them  a  mean  and  obscure  multitude. 
REMARK.  —  The  gerund  is  occasionally  found  in  apposition  with 
a  noun :  as, 

ad  res  diversissimas,  parendum  atque  imperandum  (Livy,  xxi. 
3),  for  the  most  ividely  different  things  obeying  and  com- 
manding. 

NOTE.  — From  the  ablative  of  manner  comes  the  Italian  and  Spanish 
form  of  the  participle,  the  true  participle  form  becoming  an  adjective. 


74 :  i,  2.]  SUPINE.  209 


74,     SUPINE. 

The  Supine  is  a  verbal  noun,  having  no  distinction 
of  tense  or  person,  and  is  limited  to  two  uses. 

NOTE.  —  The  Supine  is  a  verbal  abstract  of  the  fourth  declension. 
The  form  in  um  is  the  accusative  of  the  end  of  motion.  The  form 
in  u  is  probably  dative  of  purpose,  though  possibly  ablative. 

1.  Former  Supine.     The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after 
verbs  of  motion  to  express  the  purpose  of  the  motion;  it 
governs  the  case  of  its  verb,  and  is  modified  by  adverbs :  as, 

quid  est,  imusne  sessum?  etsi  admonitum  venimus  te,  non 
flagitatum  (De  Or.  lii.  5),  how  now,  shall  we  be  seated? 
though  we  have  come  to  remind  not  to  entreat  you. 

nuptum  collocasse  (B.  G.  i.  18),  to  establish  in  marriage. 

venerunt  questum  injurias  (Liv.  iii.  25),  they  came  to  complain 
of  wrongs. 

REMARK. — The  supine  in  um  is  used  especially  after  eo;  and 
with  the  passive  infinitive  iri  forms  the  future  infinitive  passive 
(see  §  55,  3,  6,  Rem.)  :  as, 

fu£re  cives  qui  rempublicam  perditum  irent  (Sail.  C.  36),  there 
were  citizens  who  went  about  to  ruin  the  republic. 

non  Graiis  servitum  matribus  ibo  (^En.  ii.  786),  I  shall  not  go 
in  slavery  to  the  Grecian  dames. 

si  scisset  se  trucidatum  iri  (Div.  ii.  9),  if  he  [Pompey]  had 
known  that  he  was  going  to  be  murdered. 

2.  Latter  Supine.    The  Supine  in  u  is  used  only  after 
a  few  adjectives,  and  the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  to  de- 
note that  in  respect  to  which  the  quality  is  asserted :  as, 

O  rem  non  modo  visu  fcedam,  sed  etiam  auditu  (Phil.  ii.  25), 

a  thing  not  only  shocking  to  see,  but  even  to  hear  of! 
quserunt  quid  optimum  factu  sit  (Verr.  ii.  27),  they  ask  what  is 

best  to  do. 
humanum  factu  aut  inceptu  (Andr.  236),  a  human  thing  to  do 

or  undertake. 

si  hoc  fas  est  dictu  (Tusc.  v.  13),  if  this  is  lawful  to  say. 
So  rarely  with  verbs  :  as, 

pudet  dictu  (Agric.  32),  it  is  shame  to  tell. 

REMARK.-— The  supine  in  u  is  found  especially  with  such 
adjectives  as  indicate  an  effect  on  the  senses  or  the  feelings,  and 
those  which  denote  ease,  difficulty,  and  the  like.  But  with  facilis, 
difficilis,  jucundus,  the  construction  of  ad  with  the  gerund  is 
more  common.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  in  the  same  significa- 
tion, by  the  poets,  with  all  these  adjectives. 

• 


210  GENERAL    RULES    OP    SYNTAX.  [75. 


75.     GENERAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  Nouns  meaning  the  same  thing  agree  in  case  (§  46) . 

2.  Adjectives  agree  with  Nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case  (47). 

3.  Possessive  Adjectives  are  used  for  the  genitive,  and  in  any 

case  may  have  a  genitive  in  agreement  (47,  5). 

4.  Relatives  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender  and  number ; 

their  case  depending  on  the  construction  of  their  clause  (48). 

5.  A  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  number  and  person  (49). 

6.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  —  also  collective  nouns,  with 

quisque  and  uterque — may  take  a  plural  verb  (49,  i). 

7.  The  Subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  NOMINATIVE  (49,  2). 

8.  A  Noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another  is  in  the  GENITIVE  (50). 

9.  The  Genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  author,  owner,  source,  and 

(with  adjectives)  measure  or  quality  (50,  i). 

10.  Words  denoting  a  part  are  followed  by  the  genitive  of  the 

whole  to  which  the  part  belongs  (50,  2). 

11.  Certain  adjectives  of   Quantity  are  used  in  the  genitive  to 

express  indefinite  Value  (50,  i,  i).  _ 

12.  Many  words  of  memory  and  feeling,  knowledge  or  ignorance, 

fulness  and  want,  —  also  verbals  and  participles  used  as  ad- 
jectives, —  govern  the  genitive  (50,  3). 

13.  Verbs  of  accusing,  condemning,  and  acquitting  take  the  gen- 

itive of  the  charge  or  penalty  (50,  4,  b). 

14.  The  DATIVE  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object  (51). 

15.  Words  of  likeness,  fitness,  nearness,  service,  or  help  are  fol- 

lowed by  the  dative  (51,  5,  6). 

16.  Verbs  meaning  to  favor,  help,  please,  serve,  trust,  and  their 

contraries,  —  also  to  believe,  persuade,  command,  obey,  envy, 
threaten,  pardon,  and  spare,  —  govern  the  dative  (51,  2,  a}. 

17.  The  Dative  is  used  after  esse,  to  be,  to  denote  the  Owner  (51, 3). 

18.  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob, 

post,  pise,  pro,  sub,  super,  govern  the  Dative  (51,  2,  d). 

19.  Verbs  of  giving,  telling,  sending,  and  the  like  —  and  some- 

times of  comparing  and  taking  away  —  govern  the  accu- 
sative and  dative  (51,  i). 

20.  The  dative  is  used  to  denote  the  purpose  or  end ;  often  with 

another  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected  (51,  5). 

21.  The  ACCUSATIVE  is  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object  (52). 

22.  The  subject  of  the  Infinitive  mood  is  in  the  accusative  (52, 4,  b). 

23.  Time  how  long  and  Distance  how  far  are  in  the  accusative. 

24.  The  accusative  is  used  adverbially,  or  for  specification  (52,  3). 

25.  Verbs  of  naming,  choosing,  asking,  and  teaching  govern  two 

accusatives  (52,  2). 


75.]  GENERAL    RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  211 

26.  The  ABLATIVE  is  used  of  cause,  manner,  means,  instrument, 

quality,  specification,  and  price  (54). 

27.  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  in  the  ablative 

with  ab  (54,  4). 

28.  Words  denoting  separation  and  plenty  or  want  —  also  opus 

and  usus  signifying  need  —  govern  the  ablative  (54,  i). 

29.  Participles  denoting  birth  or  origin  govern  the  ablative  (54, 2,  a). 

30.  The  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,  —  with  many  verbals,  as 

contentus,  fretus,  laetus,  praeditus,  —  govern  the  abla- 
tive (54,  3,  a;  10,  a). 

31.  The  deponents   utor,   fruor,   fungor,   potior,  vescor,  and 

their  compounds,  govern  the  ablative  (54,  6,  d). 

32.  Comparatives  may  tg,ke  the  ablative  instead  of  quam,  than. 

33.  Degree  of  Difference  is  put  in  the  ablative  (54,  6,  e). 

34.  Time  at  or  within  which  is  put  in  the  ablative  (55,  i). 

35.  Ablative  Absolute.   A  Subject  and  Predicate  in  the  ablative 

are  used  to  define  the  time  or  circumstances  of  an  action. 

36.  The  name  of  the  Town  where  is  in  form  like  the  Genitive  of 

singular  names  in  us,  a,  um,  otherwise  Dative  or  Ablative ; 
that  tvhither  in  the  Accusative,  and  whence  in  the  Ablative. 

So  of  domus,  rus  (also  humi,  belli,  militia},  and  many  names  of  Islands. 

37.  With  other  words  (including  names  of  Countries)  Prepositions 

are  used  to  denote  where,  whither,  or  whence. 

38.  The  Infinitive  is  used  like  a  neuter  noun,  as  the  Subject  or 

Object,  or  to  complete  the  action  of  a  verb  (57,  8,  a). 

39.  The  Infinitive,  with  subject-accusative,  is  regularly  used  after 

verbs  of  knowing,  thinking,  telling,  and  the  like  (57,  8,  e). 

40.  Historical  Infinitive.     The    Infinitive    is    often    used    for 

tenses  of  the  indicative  in  narration  (57,  8,  h). 

41.  The  Gerund,  governing  the  case  of  its  verb,  or  the  Gerundive  in 

agreement  with  a  noun,  has  the  construction  of  a  verbal  noun. 

42.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion ;  the  Supine 

in  u  after  adjectives. 

43.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  independently  to  denote  a  wish,  com- 

mand, or  concession  (57,  2). 

44.  Relatives  or  Conjunctions  implying  purpose  or  result,  —  also 

relative  clauses  of  characteristic,  —  require  the  Subjunctive. 

45.  Indirect  Questions  take  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  (67,  2). 

46.  The  Subjunctive  present  and  perfect  are  used  in  future  condi- 

tions ;  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  in  those  contrary  to  fact. 

47.  Dependent  clauses  in  Indirect  Discourse,  or  in  a  subjunctive 

construction,  take  the  subjunctive. 

48.  In  the  sequence  of  Tenses,  primary  tenses  are  followed  by 

primary,  and  secondary  by  secondary  (58,  10). 


212  ARRANGEMENT.  [76:1,2. 

76.     ARRANGEMENT. 

In  Latin  the  words  do  not  follow  the  order  of  con- 
struction, yet  they  have  a  regular  arrangement.  This, 
however,  is  constantly  modified  for  emphasis,  harmony, 
and  clearness. 

1.  Normal  Order.    Regularly  the  subject  stands  first, 
followed  by  its  modifiers ;  the  verb  last,  preceded  by  the  words 
which  depend  upon  it :  as, 

civis  Romanus  sum  (not  sum  civis  Romanus). 

voluptates  blandissimae  dominae  majores  partes  animi  a  vir- 

tute  detorquent  (Off.  ii.  10). 

a*   A  predicate  nominative,  as  the  most  important  part  of  the 
predicate,  is  often  placed  after  the  copula :  as, 
qui  Athenis  est  mortuus  (id.  24). 
hsec  ad  judicandum  sunt  facillima  (id.  iii.  6). 
&.   The  forms  of  esse  meaning  there  is,  &c.9  often  come  first 
in  the  sentence  :  as, 

sunt  qusedam  officia  quae  aliis  magis  quam  aliis  debeantur 
(Off.  i.  18). 

c.  A  numeral  adjective,  or  one  essential  to  the  meaning  of  the 
phrase,  goes  before  its  noun;  one  simply  descriptive  commonly 
follows :  as, 

omnes  homines  decet. 

est  viri  magni  rebus  agitatis  punire  sontes  (Off.  i.  24). 

omnis  actio  vacare  debet  temeritate  et  neglegentia  (id.  29). 

cum  aliqua  perturbatione  (id.  i.  38). 

Lselius  et  sapiens  et  amicitiae  gloria  excellens  (Lael.  i). 

d*  A  Demonstrative  pronoun  precedes  the  noun,  Relatives  stand 
first  in  their  sentence  or  clause,  Adverbs  stand  directly  before  the 
word  they  qualify. 

2.  Emphasis.    Inversion  of  the  above  order  gives  em- 
phasis. 

a.  Particularly  the  verb  comes  first  and  the  subject  last.  This 
makes  either  or  both  emphatic  :  as, 

dicebat  idem  C.  Curio  (Off.  ii.  17). 

&•  Any  word  closely  connected  with  the  preceding  sentence 
comes  first,  and  with  the  following  last :  as, 

ac  duabus  iis  personis  quas  supra  dixi  tertia  adjungitur  (Off. 
i.  32). 


76:2,3-]  ARRANGEMENT.  213 

objecit  [Cato]  ut  probrum  M.  Nobiliori  quod  is  in  provinciam 

poetas  duxisset;  duxerat  autem  consul  ille  in  JEtoliam  ut 

scimus  Ennium  (Tusc.  i.  2). 
maxime  perturbantur  officia  in  amicitiis ;   quibus  et  non  tri- 

buere  quod  recte  possis,  et  tribuere  quod  non  sit  aequum, 

contra  officium  est  (Off.  iii.  10). 

€•  A  word  or  phrase  inserted  between  the  parts  of  compound 
tenses  becomes  emphatic :  as, 

ille  reprehensus  a  multis  est  (N.  D.  ii.  38). 

d.  A  modifier  of  a  noun  and  adjective  or  participle  is  often 
placed  between  them.     So  in  the  gerundive  construction  :  as, 

de  communi  hominum  memoria  (Tusc.  i.  24). 

de  uno  imperatore  contra  praedones  constituendo  (Manil.  17). 

e.  Sometimes  a  noun  and  its  attribute  are  separated  as  far  as 
possible,  so  as  to  include  less  important  words  :  as, 

objurgationes  etiam  nonnunquam  incidunt   necessariae  (Off. 
i.  38). 

/.  One  pair  of  ideas  is  set  off  against  another,  either  in  the 
same  order  or  in  exactly  the  opposite  order.  The  latter,  which 
is  very  common,  is  called  chiasmus  from  the  Greek  X  on  account 
of  the  cross  arrangement.  Thus, 

,  rerum  copia  verborum  copiam  gignit  (De  Or.  iii.  3,  31). 
pro  vita  hominis  nisi  hominis  vita  reddatur  (B.  G.  vi.  16). 
leges  supplicio  improbos  afficiunt,  defendunt  ac  tuentur  bonos 

(Fin.  iii.  3). 
non  igitur  utilitatem  amicitia,  sed  utilitas  amicitiam  consecuta 

est   (Lael.    14).     [Here   the   arrangement  of  cases   only   is 

chiastic,  that  of  ideas  is  regular.] 

g.  Different  forms  of  the  same  word  are  often  placed  together, 
also  words  from  the  same  root. 

h*  A  favorite  order  with  the  poets  is  the  interlocked,  by 
which  the  attribute  of  one  pair  comes  between  the  parts  of  the 
other.  This  is  often  joined  with  chiasmus  :  as, 

et  superjecto  pavidse  natarunt  aequore  damae  (H.  Od.  i.  2,  n). 
arma  nondum  expiatis  uncta  cruoribus  (id.  ii.  i,  5). 

3.  Special  Rules. 

a.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  their  nouns  (except  terms 
and  versus),  but  they  are  often  placed  between  a  noun  and  ad- 
jective :  as, 

quern  ad  modum ;  quam  ob  rem ;  magno  cum  metu ;  omnibus 
cum  copiis;  nulla  in  re. 


214  ARRANGEMENT.  [76  :   3,  4. 

b.  Itaque    regularly  comes  first  in  its  sentence,  or  clause; 
eiiim,   autem,   vero,  quoque,  never   first,   but   usually  second, 
sometimes  third  if  the  second  word  is  emphatic ;    quidem  never 
first,  but  after  the  emphatic  word :   ne  . . .  quidem  include  the 
emphatic  word  or  words. 

c.  Inquam,  inquit,  &c.,  credo,  opinor,  quaeso,  used  par- 
enthetically, always  follow  one  or  more  words* 

d.  The  negative  precedes  the  word  it  especially  affects  ;  but  if 
it  belongs  to  no  one  word,  it  begins  the  sentence. 

4.  Structure.  Latin  expresses  the  relation  of  words  to 
each  other  by  inflection,  rather  than  by  position,  like  modern 
languages.  Hence  its  structure  not  only  admits  of  great 
variety  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  but  is  especially  favor- 
able to  that  form  of  sentence  which  is  called  a  Period.  In  a 
period,  the  sense  is  expressed  by  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  and 
is  held  in  suspense  till  the  delivery  of  the  last  word,  which 
usually  expresses  the  main  action  or  motive. 

An  English  sentence  does  not  often  admit  this  form  of 
structure.  It  was  imitated,  sometimes  with  great  skill  and 
beauty,  by  many  of  the  early  writers  of  English  prose ;  but 
its  effect  is  better  seen  in  poetry,  in  such  a  passage  as  the 
following :  — 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat." 

Paradise  Lost,  Book  II.  1-5. 


PAET  THIRD. 
RULES   OF   VERSE    (PROSODY). 


77.     RHYTHM. 

1.  The  Poetry  of  the  ancients  was  not  composed,  like 
modern  poetry,  according  to  accent  and  rhyme;    but  was 
measured,  like  music,  by  the  length  of  the  syllables,  or  vowel 
sounds.     The  measured  flow  of  verse  is  called  Rhythm. 

2.  Each  syllable  is  considered  as  either  long  or  short,  — 
In  Quantity  or  length  (not  in  Quality  or  sound,  as  we  speak 
of  the  long  or  short  vowel-sounds  in  English)  ;  a  long  syllable 
JDeing  reckoned  in  length  equal  to  two  short  ones  (see  p.  3). 

REMARK. — The  quantity  of  radical  or  stem-syllables  —  as  of 
hort  a  in  pater  or  of  long  a  in  mater  —  can  be  learned  only 
>y  observation  or  practice,  unless  determined  by  the  general  rules 
if  Quantity.  Most  of  the  rules  of  Prosody  are  only  arbitrary 
ules  for  the  purposes  of  memory ;  the  syllables  being  long  or 
hort  because  the  ancients  pronounced  them  so.  In  those  cases 
yhich  cannot  be  conveniently  grouped,  the  quantity  is  shown  by 
he  actual  practice  of  the  ancients,  and  is  said  to  be  determined  by 
he  authority  of  the  Poets,  — the  principal  means  we  have  of  learn- 
ig  it.  In  some  inscriptions,  however,  the  long  vowels  are  distin- 
uished  in  various  ways  by  marks  over  the  letters,  or  by  doubling. 

Owing  to  the  practice  of  Roman  poets  of  borrowing  very 
irgely  from  the  poetry  and  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  numerous 
{reek  words,  especially  proper  names,  make  an  important  part 
f  Latin  poetry.  These  words  are  generally  employed  in  accord- 
,nce  with  the  Greek  and  not  the  Latin  laws  of  quantity.  Where 
liese  vary  in  any  important  point,  they  will  be  noticed  in  the  rules 
iven  below. 

78.     RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 
1.   General  Rules. 

a*   A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short :  as,  via,  traho. 

REMARK.  —  The  aspirate  h,  as  in  the  example  above,  is  not 
eckoned  as  a  Consonant  in  the  rules  of  prosody  (See  §  1,  I,  Note). 


216  PROSODY.  [78:  I,  2. 

EXCEPTIONS.  — 1.  In  the  genitive  form  ius  (§  16,  I,  6),  i  is 

long.     It  is,  however,  sometimes  made  short  in  verse. 

2.  In  the  fifth  declension  (genitive  and  dative  singular),  e  is 
long  between  two  vowels  :  as,  diei;  but  is  short  after  a  consonant, 
as  in  fidei. 

3.  In  fio  (§  37,  4),  i  is  long  except  when  followed  by  er:  as, 
flo,  fiebam,  fiam,  fieri,  fierem. 

4.  In  the  terminations  aius  and  eius,  a  and  e  are  long :  as  in 
Caius,  Pompeius ;   also  in  the  verb  aio,  and  genitives  in  ai. 

5.  In  many  Greek  proper  names,  the  vowel  in  Latin  represents 
a  long  vowel  or  diphthong,  and  is  consequently  long :  as,  Troes, 
Thalia,  heroas.     But  many  Greek  words  are  more  or  less  Latin- 
ized in  this  respect  as  Academia,  chorea. 

6.  A  Diphthong  is  long :  as,  foedus,  cui,  caelum,  delude. 

EXCEPTION.  —  The  preposition  prae  in  compounds  is  generally 
short  before  a  vowel  (as  in  praeustis,  ^En.  vii.  524) . 

c.  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  (cram)  is  long :  as  i  in  nil 
(for  niMl)  ;  currus  (genitive  for  curruis).     But  not  where  the 
vowels  are  united  by  synceresis,  as  in  parietibus  (par-yetibus) . 

d .  A  syllable  in  which  a  short  vowel  comes  before  two  con- 
sonants or  a  double  consonant  —  also  before  the  letter  j  — is  long: 
as,  magnus,  rex,   pejor,  it  ventis  ocior,  (but  adhuc).     But 
if  the  two  consonants  are  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r,  the  syllable 
is  common,  — that  is,  it  may  be  either  long  or  short  in  verse  :  as, 
allcris,  pltribus,  refluo. 

REMARK.  —  Sometimes  the  y  or  v  resulting  from  synaeresis 
has  the  effect  of  a  consonant :  as,  fluviorum  rex  (G.  i.  482). 

e.  In  early  Latin  s  at  the  end  of  words  was  not  sounded,  and 
hence  does  not  make  position  with  another  consonant.     In  many 
other  cases  in  the  comic  poets  two  consonants  do  not  make  posi- 
tion, especially  in  pronouns  and  particles :  as,  ille,  iste,  nempe. 

REMARK.  — A  short  syllable,  made  long  under  this  rule,  is  said 
to  be  long  by  Position:  as,  in  docetne.  In  docesne,  the  same 
syllable  is  long  by  the  general  rule  (2,  h,  below).  The  rules  of 
Position  do  not,  in  general,  apply  to  final  vowels. 

%.  Final  Syllables. 

a.  Words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long :  as,  me, 
tu,  hi,  ne. 

The  attached  particles  -ne',  -que,  -ve,  -eg,  ptS,  and  re-  (rgd-) 
are  short ;  se-  is  long :  as,  secedit,  exercitumque  reducit. 


78:    2.]  RULES    OF    QUANTITY.  217 

b.  Nouns  of  one  syllable  are  long :  as,  sol,  os  (oris),  bos,  vis. 
EXCEPTIONS. — c6r,  fel,  mel,  5s  (ossis),  vir. 

c.  Final  a  in  words  declined  by  cases  is  short,  except  in  the 
ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension ;  in  all  other  words  it  is 
long:    as,    ea   Stella    (nominative),    cum    ea    Stella;    frustra, 
voca  (imperative),  postea,  triginta;   also,  qua  (plural). 

EXCEPTIONS. — eia,  ita,  quia,  puta  (suppose);  and,  in  late 
use,  triginta,  &c. 

d.  Final  e  is  short,  except  (1)  in  nouns  of  the  fifth  declen- 
sion;   (2)   in  adverbs   formed   from  adjectives  of  the  first  and 
second  declension,  with  others  of  like  form ;    (3)  in  the  impera- 
tive singular  of  the  second  conjugation :  as.  nubS,  ducite,  fide, 
fame  (§  11,  6,  3),  quare    (qua  re),  hodie   (hoc   die),  mone, 
monete,  saepe,  saepissime. 

EXCEPTIONS. — bene,  male;  fere,  ferme;  also  (rarely),  cave, 
habe,  tace,  vale,  vide;  inferng,  superne. 

e.  Final  i  is  long :  as  in  turri,  fill,  audi.     But  it  is  common  in 
mini,  tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubij  and  short  in  nisi,  quasi,  ciii  (when 
making  two  syllables),  and  in  Greek  vocatives,  as  Alexi 

/"•  Final  o  is  common;  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives;  also, 
usually,  in  verbs. 

EXCEPTIONS. — citS,  mod6,  ilic6,  profecto,  dummodo, 
immo,  eg6,  du6,  oct6. 

g*   Final  u  is  long ;  final  y  is  short . 

h*  Final  as,  es,  os,  are  long;  final  is,  us,  ys  are  short:  as, 
nefas,  rupes,  servos,  honos;  hostis,  amicus,  Tethys. 

EXCEPTIONS. — as  is  short  in  Greek  plural  accusatives,  as 
lampadas ;  and  in  anas. 

es  is  short  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension  (lingual)  increasing 
short:  as  miles  (itis),  obses  (idis),  —  except  abies,  aries, 
paries,  pes ;  in  the  present  of  esse  (es,  ades) ;  in  the  preposition 
penes ;  and  in  the  plural  of  Greek  nouns. 

os  is  short  in  compos,  impos ;  in  some  Greek  endings,  as 
barbit8s ;  also  o  for  later  u  in  the  second  declension,  as  servos 
(nominative) . 

is  in  plural  cases  is  long,  as  in  bonis,  omnis  (accusative 
plural)  ;  in  sis,  vis,  velis,  mails,  nolis ;  in  gratis,  foris  (prop- 
erly plurals)  ;  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the  fourth  conjuga- 
tion, as  audis  (where  it  is  the  stem-vowel)  ;  and  sometimes  in 
the  forms  in  -eris  (perfect  subjunctive),  where  it  was  originally 
long.  10 


218  PROSODY.  [78 :  2,  3. 

us  is  long  in  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive plural  of  the  fourth  declension ;  and  in  nouns  of  the  third 
declension  having  u  long  in  the  stem:  as  virtus  (utis),  incus 
(udis). 

i.  Of  other  final  syllables,  those  ending  in  a  consonant,  except 
c,  are  short :  as,  ad,  ac,  istuc,  am  at,  amatur. 

EXCEPTIONS.  —  donee,  fac,  nee,  sometimes  hie ;  en,  non, 
quln,  sin;  eras,  plus;  cur,  par. 

3.  Penultimate  Syllables. 

a.  Increment*     A  Noun  is  said  to  increase,  when  in 
any  case   it    has    more    syllables    than    in    the    nominative 
singular. 

Thus  Stella  is  said  to  increase  long  in  stellarum ;  and  corpus 
to  increase  short  in  corporis. 

NOTE.  —  The  rules  of  increment  are  purely  arbitrary,  as  the 
syllables  are  long  or  short  according  to  the  proper  quantity  of  the 
stem  or  the  formative  terminations.  The  quantity  of  noun  stems 
appears  in  the  schedule  of  the  third  declension  (§  11,  iv.  3),  and  that 
of  terminations,  under  the  various  inflections  where  it  is  better  to  learn 
them. 

A  Verb  is  said  to  increase,  when  in  any  part  it  has  more 
syllables  than  in  the  stem  (inclusive  of  the  final  vowel). 

Thus  amo  is  said  to  increase  long  in  amatis;  and  rego  to 
increase  short  in  regitis. 

The  final  syllable  of  an  inflected  word  is  called  the  termi- 
nation ;  that  immediately  preceding  is  called  the  increment. 

Thus,  in  the  examples  given  above,  the  penultimate  syllable  is 
called  the  increment.  In  itmeribus,  amaveritis,  the  syllables 
marked  are  called  the  first,  second,  and  third  increments  of  the 
noun  or  verb. 

b.  Nouns.     In   the   increment   of  Nouns   and  Adjectives,  a 
and  o  are  generally  long;   e,  i,  u,  y,  generally  short   (see  list, 
pp.  25-27)  :  as,  aetatis,  honoris,  servorum ;  operis,  carmmis, 
murmuris,  pecudis,  chlamydis.     Exceptions  are  :  — 

a:  —  baccar  (aris),  hepar  (atis),  jubar  (aris),  lar  (laris),  mas 
(maris),  nectar  (aris),  par  (paris),  sal  (salis),  vas  (vadis),  daps 
(dapis),  fax,  anthrax  (acis). 

6 :  —  neuters  of  third  declension  (except  6s,  oris) ;  arbor  (oris), 
scrobs  (scrobis),  ops  (opis). 


78:   3-]  RULES    OF    QUANTITY.  219 

e:  —  increments  of  fifth  declension;  heres  (edis),  lex  (legis), 
locuples  (etis),  merces  (edis),  plebs  (plebis),  quies  (etis),  rex 
(regis),  ver  (veris). 

i:  —  most  nouns  and  adjectives  in  ix:  as,  felicis,  radicis  (except 
filix,  nix,  strix);  dis  (ditis),  glis  (gllris),  lis  (litis),  vis  (vires), 
Quirites,  Sammtes. 

u:  —  forms  from  nouns  in  us:  as,  paludis,  telluris,  virtutis  ; 
also  lux  (lucis),  frux  (frugis). 

c.  Verbs.     In  the  increment  of  Verbs  (see  Tables  of  Inflec- 
tion, pp.  66-74),  the  characteristic  vowels  are  as  follows  :  — 

Of  the  first  conjugation  a  :  as,  amare,  amatur. 
Of  the  second  conjugation  e  :  as,  monere,  monetur. 
Of  the  third  conjugation  e,  i:  as,  regere,  regitur. 
Of  the  fourth  conjugation  i:  as,  audire,  auditor. 
Exc.  —  do  and  its  compounds  have  a:  as,  dare,  circumdabat. 
In  other  increments  — 

a  is  always  long  :  as,  monearis,  regamus. 

e  is  long  in  tense-endings  :  as,  regebam,  audiebar.  But  it  is 
short  before  ram,  rim,  ro  ;  in  the  future  personal  endings  -beris, 
bere;  and  sometimes  in  the  perfect  -erunt  (as  steteruntque 
comae,  ^En.  ii.  774). 

i  is  long  in  forms  after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth  conjugation  : 
as,  petlvi,  lacessitus  (in  others  short  :  as,  monitus)  ;  also  in 
the  subjunctive  present  of  esse  and  velle,  and  (rarely)  in  the 
endings  -rimus,  -ritis  ;  but  short  in  the  future  forms  amabitis,  &c. 

o  is  found  only  in  imperatives,  and  is  always  long. 

u  is  short  in  sumus,  volumus,  quaesiimus;  in  the  supine 
and  its  derivatives  it  is  long  :  as,  soluturus. 

d.  Perfects  and  supines  of  two  syllables  lengthen  the  stem- 
syllable  :    as,  jiivo,  juvi,  jutum;    video,  vidi,  visum;    fiigio, 


EXCEPTIONS.  -r-  bibi,  dedi  (do),  fidi  (findo),  scidi  (scindo), 
steti  (sto),  stiti  (sisto),  tiili  (fero);  —  citum  (cieo),  datum  (do), 
itum  (eo),  litum  (lino),  quitum  (queo),  ratum  (reor), 
riitum  (ruo),  satum  (sero),  situm  (sino),  statum  (sto  or 
sisto).  In  some  compounds  of  sto,  statum  is  found  long,  as 
prostatum. 

e.  Reduplicated  perfects  shorten  both  syllables  :  as,  cecidi 
(cado)  ,  didici  (disco)  ,  cecini  (cano)  ;  but  cecidi  from 
caedo,  pepedi  from  pedo. 


220  PROSODY.  [78.    79. 

/.  Forms  from  the  same  STEM  retain  the  original  quantity :  as, 
amo,  amavisti,  genus,  generis. 

EXCEPTIONS. — 1.  bos,  lar,  mas,  par,  pes,  sal,  vas  —  also 
arbos  (not  arbbr)  —  have  a  long  vowel  in  the  nominative  from 
short  stems. 

2.  Nouns  in  or,  genitive  oris,  have  the  vowel  shortened  before 
the  final  r :  as,  hon6r.    (But  this  shortening  is  comparatively  late, 
so  that  in  Plautus  and  some  inscriptions  these  nominatives  are 
often  found  long.) 

3.  Many  verb-fbrms  with  original  long  vowel  shorten  it  before 
final  t:  as,  am^t,  diceret  (compare  amemus),  audit,  fit.     (The 
final  syllable  in  t  of  the  perfect  seems  to  have,  been  originally 
long,  but  to  have  been  shortened  under  this  rule.) 

g.  Forms  from  the  same  ROOT  often  vary  in  quantity  from 
vowel-increase  (see  §§  1,  3,  a;  5,  2 ;  44,  i,  a)  ;  as,  dico  (cf.  mal- 
edicus) ,  duco  (duels) ,  fldo  (perfidus) ,  vocis  (v6co) ,  legio 
(lego). 

/*.  COMPOUNDS  retain  the  quantity  of  the  words  which  com- 
pose them:  as,  occido  (calo),  occido  (caedo),  iniquus 
(aequus) .  Greek  words  compounded  with  irpo  have  o  short,  as 
prbpheta,  prologus.  Some  Latin  compounds  of  pro  have  o 
short,  as  prbficiscor,  prdfiteor.  Compounds  with  ne  vary :  as, 
nefas,  iiego,  nequeo,  iiequis,  nequam.  So  dejero  and  pejero 
from  juro. 

[For  the  quantity  of  Penultimate  Syllables  in  regular  Deriva- 
tives, see  §  44,  pages  97-99.] 


79.     FEET. 

1.  The  most  natural  division  of  musical  time  is  into  inter- 
vals, consisting  of  either  two  or  three  equal  parts,  making 
what  is  called  double  or  triple  time ;    but  the  ancients  also 
distinguished  five  equal  parts.     These  intervals  are  in  music 
called  Measures ;  in  prosody,  they  are  called  Feet. 

2.  The  feet  most  frequently  employed  in  Latin  verse  con 
sist  either  of  two  or  three  syllables ;  and  may  be  represented 
by  musical  notation,  as  follows :  — 


79.]  FEET.  221 

a.    OF  Two  SYLLABLES. 

L  I-  I     C  5     I  ^rto  C  ~)  :  as»  bonus. 
o     '      r  w      \ 

2.  -i  I     |*  J     |    Trochee  or  Choree  ("  w)  :  as,  cariis. 
3-  -§•   I     C  P     I  Iam^us  C  ~)  :  as»  bbnos. 

Q      I        Ir    I          I 

4.  J-  |   Spondee  ("  ~)  :  as,  caros. 

5.    OF  THREE  SYLLABLES. 

L  T  i  r  *  5  1  Dactyi  ("  ~  ^:  as>  d5taut 

2.  4-  I  *  J  *  |   Anapcest  f  w  ")  :  as,  dfcmmos. 

J  |*  *  |  Amphibrach  (         )  :   as,  amiciis. 


4-  •§-  I  C  C  C  I    Tribrach  ("  w  w)  :  as,  h6minfe. 

o    '  ^  ^  ^   ' 

5.  -4-          f  r  I  Molossus  ("  "  ")  :  as,  fugerunt  (rare). 
Of  three  syllables,  but  more  than  three  units  of  time. 

6.  I  Amphimacer  or  Cretic  ("""):  as,  eggrant. 

7.  |  p  f  f  |  Bwchius  (  ---  )  :  as,  regebant. 

€•  OF  FOUR  SYLLABLES. 

1.  Choriambus  (trochee,  iambus)  :  as,  detulerant. 

2.  Greater  Ionic  (spondee,  pyrrhic)  :  as,  dejecerat. 

3.  Lesser  Ionic  (pyrrhic,  spondee)  :  as,  rStulissent. 

4.  The  first,   second,   third,   or  fourth  Epitritus  has  a  short 
syllable  in  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  place  with  three  long 
syllables. 

5.  The  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  Pceon  has  a  long  syllable 
in  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  place  with  three  short  syllables. 

6.  The  Proceleusmatic  consists  of  four  short  syllables,  as  6per- 
ibiis. 

NOTE.  —  Narrative  poetry  was  written  for  rhythmical  recitation, 
or  chant  ;  and  Lyrical  poetry  for  rhythmical  melody,  or  music,  often 
to  be  accompanied  by  measured  movements  or  dance.  But  in  read- 
ing, it  is  not  usual,  though  it  is  better,  to  keep  the  sj«k;t  measure  of 
time;  and  often  accent  is  substituted  for  rhythm,  as  ^(Pnglish  poetry. 


222  PROSODY.  [79:  2-5.   80:  i. 

d.  In  general,  feet  of  the  same  time  can  be  substituted  for 
each  other,  and  two  short  syllables  may  stand  for  a  long  one.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  long  syllable  is  said  to  be  resolved. 

Thus  the  Spondee  may  take  the  place  of  the  dactyl  or  anapaest, 
the  Tribrach  of  the  trochee  or  iambus ;  the  Proceleusmatic,  or  a 
Dactyl  standing  for  an  anapaest,  is  the  resolution  of  a  spondee. 

When  a  long  syllable  having  the  ictus  is  resolved,  the  ictus 
properly  belongs  to  both  the  short  syllables ;  but  the  accent  to 
indicate  it  is  placed  on  the  first :  as, 

Nunc  experiar  |  sitite  aceto  |  tibi  cor  acn?  in  |  pdctore. 

BACCH.  405. 

3.  Arsis  and  TJiesis.     The  accented  syllable  of  each 
foot  is  called  the  Arsis ;  and  the  unaccented  part  the  Thesis. 

NOTE.  —  The  name  Arsis  meant  originally  the  raising  of  the  foot 
in  beating  time  (" upward  beat"),  and  Thesis  the  putting  down 
("downward  beat");  but  these  terms  came,  in  later  use,  to  signify 
respectively  the  raising  and  depression  of  the  voice.  ( See  Mar.  Viet. 
Chap,  ix.) 

4.  Ictus.    Accent,  in  prosody,  is  called  Ictus,  —  that  is, 
the  beat  of  the  foot,  as  in  a  dance  or  march. 

5.  Ccesura.    The  end  of  a  word  interrupting  a  foot  is 
called   Caesura;   and  when  this    coincides  with  a  rhetorical 
break  in  the  sense,  it  is  called  the  Cassura  of  the  verse. 

NOTE. —•'The  position  of  the  principal  Caesura  is  important,  as 
affecting  the  melody  or  rhythm.  See  description  of  verses  below. 

80.     SCANNING. 

1.  Verse.  A  single  line  in  poetry,  or  a  series  of  feet  set 
in  metrical  order,  is  called  a  Verse  (i.e.  a  turning  back). 

To  divide  the  verse,  in  reading,  into  its  appropriate  feet, 
according  to  the  rules  of  quantity  and  versification,  is  called 
Scanning  or  Scansion  (i.e.  climbing,  or  advance  by  steps). 

A  verse  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  beginning  is  called  Acephalous 
(headless)  ;  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  end,  it  is  called  Catalectic 
(stopped)  ;  complete,  Acatalectic.  Sometimes  a  verse  appears  to 
have  a  superfluous  syllable,  and  is  then  called  Hypercatalectic. 

The  word  Verse  (versus,  a  turning)  is  opposed  to  Prose  (pror- 
sus  or  pro-^^us,  straight  ahead). 


80:  2-5.  81.]  SCANNING:  METRE.  223 

2.  Elision.  In  scanning,  a  vowel  or  diphthong  at  the  end 
of  a  word  (unless  an  interjection)  —  sometimes  even  at  the 
end  of  a  verse  —  is  dropped,  when  the  next  word  begins  with 
a  vowel  or  with  h.  This  is  called  Synalocpha  (smearing),  or 
Elision  (bruising)  ;  or,  at  the  end  of  a  verse,  Synapheia 
(binding). 

A  final  m,  with  the  preceding  vowel,  is  dropped  in  like  manner  : 
this  is  called  Ecthlipsis.  (Hence  a  final  syllable  in  m  is  said  to 
have  no  quantity  of  its  own  ;  its  vowel,  in  any  case,  being  either 
elided,  or  else  made  long  by  position.)  Thus  in  the  verse  :  — 

Monstrum  horrendum  informs  ingens  cui  lumen  ademptum. 

.  iii.  658. 


NOTE.  —  The  practice  of  Elision  is  followed  in  Italian  and  French 
poetry,  and  is  sometimes  adopted  in  English,  particularly  in  the  older 
poets  :  as, 

T*  inveigle  and  invite  th'  unwary  sense.  —  Comus,  538. 

In  early  Latin  poetry,  a  syllable  ending  in  s  was  often  elided,  even 
before  a  consonant  :  as, 

Senio  confectu'  quiescit.  —  Ennius  (quoted  in  Cat.  M.  5). 

3.  Hiatus.    Elision  is  sometimes  omitted  when  a  word 
ending  in  a  vowel  has  a  special  emphasis,  or  is  succeeded  by 
a  pause.     This  is  called  Hiatus  (gaping).    ££&-&£.  6 

4.  A  final  syllable,  regularly  short,  is  sometimes  length- 
ened before  a  pause  :   it  is  then  said  to  be  long  by  Caesura. 
(This  usage  is  comparatively  rare,  most  cases  where  it  appears 
being  caused  by  the  retention  of  an  original  long  quantity.) 
Nostrorum  obruimur,  oriturque  miserrima  caedes.  —  ^En.  ii.  411. 

5.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  may  be  indifferently  long 
or  short  (except  in  some  forms  of  Anapaestic  and  Ionic  verse). 

81.     METRE. 

1.  Metre  is  the  regular  combination  of  feet  in  verse,  and 
is  named  from  its  most  frequent  and  ruling  foot  :  as,  Dactylic, 
Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  Choriambic.  ^ 


224  PROSODY.  [81.  82:  i. 

NOTE.  —  The  ruling  foot,  so  called,  always  consists  of  a  combina- 
tion of  long  and  short  syllables,  and  is  therefore  never  a  pyrrhic  or 
spondee. 

The  shorter  feet  (Iambus,  Trochee)  are  counted  not  by  single  feet, 
but  by  pairs  (dipodies),  so  that  six  Iambi  make  a  trimeter,  &c. 

2.  A  Verse  consists  of  a  given  number  of  feet  arranged 
metrically.     It  is  named  from  the  number  of  feet  (or  pairs) 
it  contains,  as  Hexameter,  Trimeter. 

3.  A  Stanza,  or  Strophe,  consists  of  a  definite  number  of 
verses  ranged  in  a  fixed  order.    It  is  often  called  from  the 
name  of  some  poet,  as  Sapphic,  Alcaic,  Horatian. 


82.    FORMS  OP  VERSE. 

1.  Dactylic.  The  most  common  forms  of  dactylic  verse 
are  the  Hexameter  and  Pentameter. 

a.  Hexameter.  The  Hexameter,  called  also  Heroic  verse,  is 
used  in  narrative  and  pastoral  poetry.  It  consists  of  six  feet,  of 
which  the  last  is  always  incomplete  (a  trochee  or  spondee),  the 
fifth  generally  a  dactyle,  and  the  rest  indifferently  dactyles  or 
spondees.  The  fifth  foot  is  rarely  a  spondee,  in  which  case  the 
verse  is  called  spondaic.  The  principal  Caesura  falls  after  the 
arsis  (sometimes  in  the  thesis)  of  the  third  foot  or  after  the  arsis 
of  the  fourth.  In  the  last  case  there  should  be  another  in  the  third. 

The  introductory  verses  of  the  .ZEneid,  divided  according  to 
the  foregoing  rules,  will  be  as  follows,  the  principal  Caesura  in 
each  verse  being  marked  by  double  lines  :  — 

arma  vi|rumqu£'ca|n6  ||  Tro|jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris 
I  tali  jam  fa|to  profu|gus  ||  La|vmzaque  |  venft 
Htora,  |  multe  ilk  |  et  terjris  ||  jac|tatus  et  j  alto 
vi  supe|rum  saejvae  ||  mem6|rem  Ju|noms  6b  |  Tram  ; 
multa  quo|qu£  et  beljlo  pasjsus  ||  dum  |  conderet  |  urbem, 
mfer|retque  de|6s  Lati|o,  ||  genus  |  unde  La|tmum, 
Alba|nlque  pa|tres,  ||  at|qu^  altae  |  mcenifa  |  Romae. 

Another  form  of  caesura  is  seen  in  the  following :  — 

Hoc  facJ|ens  vi|vam  meli|us  ||  sic  |  dulcts  a|micis. 

HOK.  SAT.  I.  4,  135. 


82:    I ?  2.]  FORMS    OF   VERSE.  225 

The  Hexameter  verse  has  been  illustrated  in  English  thus :  — 

"  Strongly  it  |  bears  us  a  (long,  ||  in  |  swelling  and  |  limitless  |  billows, 
Nothing  be  | fore  and  |  nothing  be  |  hind,  ||  but  the  |  sky  and  the  |  ocean." 

&.  Pentameter.  The  Pentameter  consists  of  five  feet,  and  is 
used  alternately  with  the  hexameter  to  form  the  Elegiac  stanza. 
It  must  be  scanned  as  two  half- verses,  of  which  the  latter  always 
has  two  dactyls,  and  each  ends  in  a  long  syllable  or  half-foot. 
There  is  no  caesura ;  but  the  first  half-verse  must  always  end  with 
a  word :  as, 

cum  subit  |  IllT|us  tris|tissrnia  |  noctis  i|mago 

qua  mini  |  supre|mum  ||  tempus  tn  |  urbe  fu|ft, 
cum  repe|to  nocjtem  qua  |  tot  mflrf  |  cara  re|liqui, 
labitur  |  ex  6cu|lls  ||  nunc  quoque  |  gutta  me|is. 
jam  prope  |  lux  ade|rat,  qua  |  me  dls|cedere  |  Caesar 
f mibus  |  extre|mae  ||  jusserat  |  AusonT|ae. 

Ov.  TKIST.  I.  EL.  3,  1-6. 

The  Elegiac  Stanza  has  been  illustrated  thus  :  — 

"In  the  hex|ameter  |  rises  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column, 
In  the  pent|ameter  |  still  ||  falling  in  |  melody  |  back." 

c.  Rarely,  other  dactylic  verses,  or  half- verses,  combined  with 
trochees  or  iambs,  are  used  by  the  lyric  poets  :  viz.,  — 

Dactylic  pentameter : 

arbon|busque  co|mae.  —  HOB.  OD.  IV.  7. 

Dactylic  tetrameter : 

eras  In  |  gens  ite|rabfmus  |  aequor.  —  OD.  I.  7. 

Archilochian  heptameter : 

solvitur  |  acris  hi|emps,  gra|ta  vfce  |  veris  |  et  Fa|voni. 

OD.  I.  4. 

%.  Iambic.  The  most  common  forms  of  Iambic  verse 
are  the  Trimeter  (Senarius),  and  Tetrameter  (Septenarius  or 
Octonarius). 

a.   Trimeter.     The  Iambic  Trimeter  is  the  ordinary  verse  of 

dramatic  dialogue.  .  It  consists  of  three  measures,  each  containing 

a  double  iambus.     In  the  first  half-measure   (odd  places),  the 

Spondee  or  its  equivalents  (anapaest  or  dactyl)  may  be  regularly 

10* 


226  PROSODY.  [82:  2. 

substituted.     In  the  comic  poets,  these  substitutions  may  be  made 
in  any  foot  except  the  last :  as, 

O  lucis  al|me  rector  ||  et  |  caeli  decus ! 

qui  alterna  cur|ru  spatfa  ||  flam|mifero  ambiens, 

illustre  lae|tis  ||  exseris  |  terns  caput. 

HERC.  FUR.  592-94. 

homo  sum:  huma|m  ||  nihil  a  m^  ali|enum  puto. 
vel  me  mone|r^  hoc  ||  vel  perc6n|tari  puta. 

HEAUT.  77,  78. 

REMARK. — The  choliambic  (lame  Iambic)  substitutes  a  trochee 
for  the  last  Iambus  :  as, 

sed  non  vlde|mus  manticae  |  quod  in  tergo  est. 

CATULL.  XXII.  21. 

b.  Tetrameter.    The  Iambic  Tetrameter  catalectic  (Septen- 
arius)  consists  of  seven  iambic  feet,  with  the  same  substitutions 
as  the  above.     It  is  used  in  more  lively  dialogue  :  as, 
nam  Idclro?  arces|sor,  nuptias  |  quod  m/  adpara|rT  senstt. 
quibus  quidem  quam  facile  potuerat  |  quiesci  si  hie  |  quiesset ! 

ANDRIA,  690-91. 

The  iambic  tetrameter  acatalectic  (Octonarius)  consists  of  eight 
full  iambic  feet  with  the  same  substitutions.  It  is  also  used  in 
lively  dialogue :  as, 

hocinesthuma|num facto aut |  In'cepta?  hocTnest6f|fMumpaMs ? 

quid  illud  est  ?  pro  |  deum  f Idem,  |  quid  est,  si  hoc  non  con  - 

tumeliast  ?  ANDRIA,  236-7. 

c»  Dimeter.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  consists  of  either  four 
(acatalectic)  or  three  and  a  half  (catalectic)  iambic  feet.  The 
former  is  used  in  combination  with  a  longer  verse,  and  the  latter 
only  in  choruses  :  as, 

beatus  il|le  qui  procul  |  negotfls, 

ut  prisca  gens  |  mortallum, 
paterna  ru|ra  bubus  ex|ercet  suls, 

solutus  6m|m  fenore ; 
nequ^  excita|tur  classico  |  miles  truci, 

neque  horret  i|ratum  mare  ; 
forumque  vi|tat,  et  super  ba  civium 

potenti6|rum  limina. 

HOR.  EPOD.  II.  1-8. 


82:  3>  4,  5-]  FORMS  OF  VERSE.  227 

quonam  cruenlta  Maenas, 
praeceps  am5|re  saevo, 
rapftur  quod  Im|potenti 

facmus  parat  |  furore  ? 

MEDEA,  850-53. 

3.  Trochaic.    The  most  common  form  of  Trochaic  verse 
is  the  Tetrameter  catalectic  (Septenarius),  consisting  of  seven 
complete  feet  with  an  additional  syllable.     Strictly,  the  spon- 
dee and  its  resolutions  can  be  substituted  only  in  the  even 
places ;  but  the  comic  poets  allow  the  substitution  in  every 
foot  but  the  last :  as, 

ftid^  habetpeta|s^wacvestitum:  |  tarn  consimillst  |  atqu^ego. 
sura,  pes,  sta|tura,  tonsus,  |  ocull,  nasum,  |  vel  labra, 
malae,  mentum,  |.  barba,  collus  :  |  totus  !  quid  ver|bis  opust  ? 
si  tergum  cllcatricosum,  |  n/hil  hoc  similist  |  similifus. 

AMPHITR.  443-46. 

4.  Anapcestic.    Anapaestic  verses  of  various  lengths  are 
found  in  dramatic  poetry.     The  spondee,  dactyl,  or  proceleus- 
matic  may  be  substituted  for  the  anapaest :  as, 

hfc  homost  |  omnium  homl|num  prae|dfpu6s 
voluptajtibus  gau|d/Tsqu^  an|tepotens. 
Ita  c6m|moda  quae  |  cupt<?  e|venlunt, 
quod  ago  |  subit,  ad  secue  |  sequitur : 
ita  gau|d/is  gau|dulm  sup|peditat. 

TRIN.  1115-19. 

Some  other  forms  of  trochaic  verse  are  found  in  the  lyric 
poets,  in  combination  with  other  feet,  either  as  whole  lines  or 
parts  of  lines :  as, 

non  ebur  ne|qu*  aureum  [dimeter] 
mea  rem|det  in  domo  |  lacunar. 

HOR.  OD.  II.  18. 

5.  Bacchic.     The   Bacchius   occurs   in   dramatic   poets 
either  in  verses  of  two  feet  (Dimeter)  or  of  four  (Tetram- 
eter).    The  long  syllables  may  be  resolved  into  short  ones, 
and  the  molossus  substituted :  as, 

multas  res  |  sfrmta  In  |  meo  cor  de  vorso, 
multum  In  co|glftand6  |  dolors  Injdiplscor, 


228  PROSODY.  [82:6,7, 

egomet  me  |  coqu0  et  ma|cer0  et  de|fetigo : 
magister  |  mihi  exer|cltor  ani|nius  nunc  est. 

TKIN.  223-26. 

6.  Cretic.  Cretic  feet  (Amphimacer)  occur  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Bacchius,  with  the  same  substitutions.  The 
last  foot  is  usually  incomplete :  as, 

amor  aml|cus  mihi  |  ne  fuas  |  unquam. 
his  ego  |  de  artibus  |  gratfam  |  facio. 
nil  eg<?  Is|tos  moror  |  faeceos  |  mores. 

TRIN.  267,  293,  297. 

V.  Choriambic.  Choriambic  feet  are  regularly  preceded 
by  a  spondee  or  trochee,  called  a  basis,  and  are  followed  by  a 
close,  consisting  of  one  or  more  syllables  (see  below). 

a.  The  First   or  Lesser  Asclepiadic  verse   consists  of  two 
choriambs  preceded  by  a  trochee  (in  Horace  a  spondee) ,  and  fol- 
lowed by  an  iambus  (8,  d). 

b.  The  Second  or  Greater  Asclepiadic  has   three    choriambs 
with  the  same  basis  and  close  (8,  7i)  :  as, 

nee  fac|ta  impia  fal|lacum  hommum  |  caelicolis  |  placent. 

CATULL.  XXX.  4. 

C.  The  Glyconic  consists  of  one  choriambus,  with  the  same 
basis  and  close  (8,  e). 

d*  The  Pherecratic  consists  of  one  choriambus,  with  the  same 
basis,  and  one  long  syllable  for  close  (8,  g) . 

e.  The  Greater  Sapphic  consists  of  two  choriambs,  preceded 
by  a  trochaic  dipody  (epitritus  secundus),  and  followed  by  a 
bacchius  (8,  c)  :  as, 

Saepe  trans  fi|nem  jaculo  |  nobilis  ex  pedlto. 

HOR.  OD.  I.  8. 

/.  The  Lesser  Sapphic  consists  of  one  choriambus,  with  the 
same  basis  and  close  (8,  b)  :  as, 

inter  auda|ces  lupus  er|rat  agnos. 

HOR.  OD.  III.  18,  13. 

g.  The  Adonic  consists  of  one  choriambus,  followed  by  a  long 
syllable  (8,  b). 


82:  8.]  FORMS    OF   VERSE.  229 

h.  The  Phalaecian    consists  of  a    basis,   a    choriambus,   an 
iambus,  and  bacchius:  as, 

diser|tiss]fme  R6|muli  |  nepotum 

quot  sunt  |  quotque  fue|re  Mar|ce  Tulli. 

CATUL.  XLIX.  1,  2. 

!•   The  lesser  Ionic  verse  consists  of  pairs  of  the  foot  of  the 
same  name. 

Je.  Rarely  other  forms  of  choriambic  verse   occur:  as,    for 
example  — 

Aristophanic : 

temperat  o|ra  frems. 

HOR.  OD.  I.  8,  7. 

Tetrameter : 

obstipuit;  |  pectore  nil  |  sistere  con|sni  quit. 

ADELPHI,  613. 

8.  Stanzas.     The   principal   forms   of  lyric   stanza,  or 
strophe,  are  the  following:  — 

a*  ALCAIC  STROPHE,  consisting  of  four  verses :  the  first  two 
(greater  Alcaic)  having  each  a  spondee   (or  trochee),  bacchius 
and  two  dactyls ;  the  third  a  spondee,  bacchius,  and  two  trochees, 
and  the  fourth  into  two  dactyls  and  two  trochees  :  as, 
justutn  ac  |  tenacem  |  prop6si|ti  vfrum 
non  cl\v\um  ardor  |  prava  julbentfum, 
non  vuljtus  mstan|tis  ty|ranm, 

mente  quajtit  solijda  nejqu^  auster. 

HOK.  OD.  III.  3. 

b.  LESSER  SAPPHIC,  consisting  of  three  Lesser  Sapphic  verses, 
and  one  Adonic  (see  above,  7,/,  g)  :  as, 

jam  satis  ter|ris  nMs  at|que  dlrae 
grandMs  mi | sit  pater  et  |  rubente 
dextera  sa|cras  jacula|tus  arces 

terruit  ur|bem. 

Id.  OD.  I.  2,  1-4. 

c.  GREATER   SAPPHIC,    consisting  of   a  choriambic   dimeter 
(7,  ft),  and  a  greater  Sapphic  (7,  e)  :  as, 

Lydifa  die  |  per  omnes 
te  deos  6|ro  Sybariri  |  cur  properas  |  amando. 

HOB.  OD.  I.  8. 


230  PROSODY.  [82:  8. 

d.  LESSER  ASCLEPIADEAN,   consisting  of  single  lines  (mono- 
strophon),  of  lesser  asclepiadics  (7,  a)  :  as, 

Maecejnas  jitavis  |  edite  re|gibiis 

O  et  |  prcesidi##z  et  |  dulce  decus  |  meum. 

Id.  1. 1. 

e.  SECOND  ASCLEPIADEAN,  consisting  of  one  Glyconic  (7,  e), 
and  one  lesser  Asclepiadic :  as. 

Romae  |  prlncipis  ur|bmm 
digna|tur  suboles  |  Inter  ama| biles 

vatum  |  ponere  me  |  chores ; 
et  jam  |  dente  minus  |  mordeor  in  vido. 

Id.  OD.  IV.  3,  13-16. 

/•  THIRD  ASCLEPIADEAN,  consisting  of  three  lesser  Asclepia- 
dics and  one  Glyconic :  as, 

audls  |  quo  strepitu  |  janua  quo  |  nemus 
inter  |  pulchra  satum  |  tecta  remu  |giat 
ventis  |  et  positas  |  ut  glaciet  |  nives 
puro  |  numine  Ju|piter. 

Id.  OD.  III.  10,  5-8. 

g*  FOURTH  ASCLEPIADEAN,  consisting  of  two  lesser  Asclepia- 
dics, one  Pherecratic  (7,  d),  and  one  Glyconic:  as, 

hie  bel|lum  lacrim6|s&*/2  hie  miseram  |  famem 
pestem|qu£  a  popub  et  |  prlncipe  Cae|sar^  in 

Persas  |  atque  Britan|nos 
vestra  |  motus  aget  |  prece. 

Id.  OD.  III.  21,  13-16. 

h.  GREATER  ASCLEPIADEAN,  consisting  of  single-  lines  of 
greater  asclepiadics :  as, 

tu  ne  |  quaesiens  |  sclre  nefas  |  quern  mihi  quern  |  tibif. 

OD.  I.  11,18;  IV.  10. 

i.  The  above  forms  include  upwards  of  a  hundred  of  the  Odes 
of  Horace.  In  the  eighteen  not  included,  he  employs  twelve 
different  kinds  of  stanzas,  most  of  which  are  combinations  of  the 
verses  already  given.  They  may  be  briefly  indicated  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

1.  Hexameter,  followed  by  the  last  four  feet  of  an  hexame- 
ter. —  OD.  I.  7,  28;  EPOD.  12. 


82:    8.]  FORMS    OF    VERSE.  231 

2.  Hexameter,  followed  by  Iambic  Dimeter. — EPOD.  14, 15. 

3.  Iambic  Trimeter  alone.  — EPOD.  17. 

4.  Hexameter,  followed  by  Iambic  Trimeter. — EPOD.  16. 

5.  Verse  of  four  Lesser  Ionics.  —  OD.  III.  12. 

6.  Hexameter  with  Dactylic  Penthemim  (five  half-feet)  : 

diffu|gere  nf|ves  rede  |  unt  jam  |  gramina  |  campis 
arbori|busque  co|mae. — OD.  IV.  7. 

7.  Iambic  Trimeter ;  Dactylic  Penthemim ;  Iambic  Dimeter. — ' 
EPOD.  11. 

8.  Hexameter ;  Iambic  Dimeter ;  Dactylic  Penthemim. — ED.  13. 

9.  Archilochian  Heptameter ;  Iambic  Trimeter  catalectic :  as, 
solvftur  |  acris  hi  |  ems  gra|ta  vice  |  veris  |  et  Fa|v6ni 

trahunt|que  sic|cas  ma  chinas  |  cari|nas. —  OD.  I.  4. 

10.  Trochaic  Dimeter  and  Iambic  Trimeter,  each  imperfect :  as, 

non  |  ebur  |  nequ^  aulreum 
mea  |  remldet  in  |  domo  |  lacu|nar. — OD.  II.  18. 

Jc.  Other  lyric  poets  use  other  combinations  of  the  above- 
mentioned  verses. 

1.  Four  Glyconics  with  one  Pherecratic:  as, 

Dia|nae  sumus  in  |  fide 
puelll^  et  pueri  m|tegn  : 
Diainam,  puen  m|tegri 

puel|laeque  cana|mus. — CATULL.  34. 

2.  Sapphics,   in   series  of  single  lines,  closing  with   an 
Adonic :  as, 

An  magis  diri  tremuere  Manes 
Herculem  ?  et  visum  canis  inferorum 
fugit  abruptis  trepidus  catenis  ? 
fallimur :  laete  venit,  ecce,  vultu, 
quern  tulit  Posas  ;  humerisque  tela 
gestat,  et  notas  populis  pharetras 

Herculis  heres. 

HERC.  (ET.  1600-6. 

3.  Sapphics  followed  by  Glyconics,  of  indefinite  number 
(HERC.  FUR.  830-874,  875-894). 


232  PROSODY.  [83. 


83.    EARLY  PROSODY. 

The  prosody  of  the  earlier  Latin  poets  differs  in  several 
respects  from  that  of  the  later. 

NOTE.  —  Before  the  language  was  used  in  literature,  it  had  become 
very  much  changed  by  the  loss  of  final  consonants  and  shortening  of 
final  syllables  under  the  influence  of  accent,  which  was  originally 
free  in  its  position,  but  in  Latin  became  limited  to  the  penult  and 
ante-penult.  This  tendency  was  arrested  by  the  study  of  grammar 
and  by  literature,  but  shows  itself  again  in  the  Romance  languages. 
In  many  cases  this  change  was  still  in  progress  in  the  time  of  the 
early  poets. 

a.  At  the  end  of  words  s  was  only  feebly  sounded,  so  that  it 
does  not  make  position  with  a  following  consonant,  and  is  some- 
times cut  off  before  a  vowel.  (This  usage  continues  in  all  poets 
till  Cicero's  time :  see  §§  1,  2,  6 ;  80,  2,  note. 

&•  The  last  syllable  of  any  word  of  two  syllables  may  be  made 
short  if  the  first  is  short.  (This  effect  remained  in  a  few  words 
like  puta,  cave,  vale,  vide.)  Thus  :  — 

abest  (Cist.  ii.  1, 12) ;  apud  test  (Trin.  196);  soror  dictast(Enn. 
157) ;  bonas  (Stich.  99) ;  domi  deaeque  (Pseud.  37) ;  domif  (Mil.  194). 

c.  The  same  effect  is  produced  when  a  short  monosyllable  pre- 
cedes a  long  syllable :  as, 

id  est  profecto  (Merc.  372),  erit  et  tfb/  exoptatum  (Mil.  1011), 
si  qmdem  hercle  (Asin.  414),  quid  est  sz  hoc  (Andria,  237). 

d»  In  a  few  isolated  words  position  is  often  disregarded.  Such 
are,  flle,  iste,  inde,  unde,  nempe,  esse  (?).  (Scholars  are  not 
yet  agreed  upon  the  principle  in  this  irregularity,  or  its  extent.) 

Thus :  — 

ecquis  his  in  aedibust  (Bacch.  581). 

€•  In  some  cases  the  accent  seems  to  shorten  a  syllable  preced- 
ing it  in  a  word  of  more  than  three  syllables :  as  in  senectuti, 
Syracusae. 

/.  At  the  beginning  of  a  verse,  many  syllables  long  by  position 
stand  for  short  ones  :  as, 

Idne  tu  (Pseud.  442) ;  estne  consimilis  (Epid.  v.  I.  1 8). 

g.  The  original  long  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  is  re- 
tained. Thus :  — 


83.     84.]  FORMS   OF   VERSE.  233 

1.  Final  a  of  the  first  declension  is  often  long :  as, 

ne  epistula  quidem  ulla  sit  in  aedibus  (Asin.  762). 
Pol  hodi*?  altera  jam  bis  detonsa  certost. 

2.  Final  a  of  the  neuter  plural  is  sometimes  long  (though  there 
seems  no.  etymological  reason  for  it):  as, 

Nunc  et  amico  prosperab<?  et  genio  meo  multa  bona  faciam 
(Pers.  263). 

3.  So  also  nouns  in  -or  with  long  stem,  either  with  original  r 
or  original  s :  as, 

m6do  quom  dicte  in  me  mgerebas  ddium  non  uxor  eram 
(Asin.  927). 

ita  m/  in  pecton?  dtque  corde  facit  amor  ince'ndium  (Merc.  590). 
atque  quanto  nox  fuisti  longior  hoc  prdxuma  (Amph.  548). 

4.  So  in  nouns  with  vowel  lengthened  originally  by  loss  of  a 
consonant:  as,  miles,  superstates. 

5.'  So  all  verb-endings  in  r  and  t,  where  the  vowel  is  elsewhere 
long  in  inflection :  as, 

rdgredior  audisse  me  (Capt.  1023) ;  Atque  ut  qui  fueris  et  qui 
nunc  (Capt.  248) ;  me  nominat  haec  (Epid.  iv.  i,  8) ;  faciat  ut  sem- 
per (Pcen.  ii.  42) ;  mfuscabat,  amabo  (Cretics,  Cist.  i.  i,  21) ;  qui 
amet  (Merc.  1021) ;  ut  fit  in  bello  capitur  alter  filius  (Capt.  25) ; 
tibi  sit  ad  me  revisas  (True.  ii.  4,  79). 

/t.  The  hiatus  is  allowed  very  freely,  especially  at  a  pause  in  the 
sense,  or  when  there  is  a  change  of  the  speaker.  (The  extent  of 
this  license  is  still  a  question  among  scholars,  but  in  the  present 
state  of  texts  it  must  sometimes  be  allowed.) 

84.     RECKONING  OF  TIME. 

1.  Date  of  Year. .  The  year  was  dated,  in  earlier  times, 
by  the  names  of  the  Consuls ;  but  was  afterwards  reckoned 
from  the  building  of  the  City  (ab  urbe  condita,  or  anno  urbis 
condita),  the  date  of  which  was  assigned  by  Varro  to  a  period 
corresponding  with  B.C.  753.  In  order,  therefore,  to  reduce 
Roman  dates  to  those  of  the  Christian  era,  the  year  of  the 
city  is  to  be  subtracted  from  754:  e.g.  A.u.c.  691  (the  year 
of  Cicero's  consulship)  =  B.C.  63. 


234  RECKONING    OF   TIME.  [84. 

2.  The  Roman  Year.     Before  Caesar's  reform  of  the 
Calendar  (B.C. 46),  the  Roman  year  consisted  of  355  days: 
March,  May,  Quintilis  (July),  and  October  having  each  31 
days,  February  having  28,  and  each  of  the  remainder  29 ; 
with  an  Intercalary  month,  on  alternate  years,  inserted  after 
February  23,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Pontifices.     The  "Ju- 
lian year,"  by  the  reformed  calendar,  had  365  days,  divided 
as  at  present-     Every  fourth  year  the  24th  of  February  (vi. 
kal.  Mart.)  was  counted  twice,  giving  29  days  to  that  month : 
hence  the  year  was  called  Bissextilis.     The*  month  Quintilis 
received  the  name  Julius  (July),  in  honor  of  Julius  Csesar ; 
and  Sextilis  of  Augustus  (August),  in  honor  of  his  successor. 

The  Julian  year  (see  below)  remained  unchanged  till  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Gregorian  Calendar  (A.D.  1582),  which  omits  leap-year 
once  in  every  century. 

3.  The  Month.     Dates,  according  to  the  Roman  Calen- 
dar, are  reckoned  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  first  day  of  the  month  was  called  Kalendae  (Calends), 
from  calare,  to  call,  —  that  being  the  day  on  which  the  pontiffs 
publicly  announced  the  New  Moon  in  the  Comitia  Calata,  which 
they  did,  originally,  from  actual  observation. 

&,  Sixteen  days  before  the  Calends,  — that  is,  on  the  fifteenth 
day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the  thirteenth  of  the 
other  months, — were  the  Idus  (Ides),  the  day  of  Full  Moon. 

c.  Eight  days  (the  ninth  by  the  Roman  reckoning)  before  the 
Ides,  —  that  is,  on  the  seventh  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  Octo- 
ber, but  the  fifth  of  the  other  months,  —  were  the  Nonae  (JVones, 
or  ninths) . 

d.  From  the  three  points  thus  determined  the  days  of  the 
month  were  reckoned  backwards  (the  point  of  departure  being, 
by  Roman  custom,  counted  in  the  reckoning),  giving  the  following 
rule  for  determining  the  date  :  — 

If  the  given  date  be  Calends,  add  two  to  the  number  of  days 
in  the  month  preceding,  —  if  Nones  or  Ides,  add  one  to  that  of 
the  day  on  which  they  fall,  —  and  from  the  number  thus  ascer- 
tained subtract  the  given  date:  —  thus,  viii.  Kal.  Feb.  (33 — 8)  = 
Jan.  25; — iv.  Non.  Mar.  (8 — 4)— Mar.  4;— iv.  Id.  Sept. 
(14— 4)— Sept.  10. 


84.    85.] 


MEASURES    OF   VALUE. 


235 


e*  The  days 

of  the  Roman  month  by  the  Julian  Calendar,  as 

thus  ascertained,  are  given  in  the  following  Table  :  — 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

i.  KAL.  JAN. 

KAL.  FEB. 

KAL.  MARTIJE 

KAL.  APRILES 

2.  iv.  Non.  Jan. 

iv.  Non.  Feb. 

vi.  Non.  Mart. 

iv.  Non.  Apr. 

_    in. 

in-      »        » 

v.        „        ,, 

HI.      „        „ 

4-  prid.  „ 
5.  NON.  JAN. 

prid.  ,,        „ 
NON.  FEB. 

IV-         „           „ 

in.      „        „ 

prid    ,,         „ 
NON.  APRILES. 

6-  vni.  Id.  Jan. 

7-   VII.      „        , 

vin.  Id.  Feb. 

VII.       „        „ 

prid.    ,,        ,, 
NON.  MARTI^E 

viii.  Id.  Apr. 

VII. 

/             »      ' 

viii.  Id.  Mart. 

VI. 

Q.    V.           ,  , 

v.        ,,      ,, 

VII.                   „ 

v. 

10.    IV.        „ 

iv.       „      „ 

VI.                     „ 

IV. 

II.    III.        „ 

III-     i,     11 

v.                „ 

III. 

12.  prid    „ 
13.  IDUS  JAN 

Frid.    ,,       ,, 
DUS  FEB. 

IV.                     „ 

in.              „ 

IDUS  APRILES. 

14.  xix.  Kal.  Feb. 

xvi.  Kal.  Martias 

prid.            „ 

xvin.  Kal.  Maias 

15.  xvin.  ,         „ 

XV.         „           ,, 

IDUS  MARTIJE. 

XVII.          „          „ 

16.  xvii.    ,         ,, 

XIV.       „           „ 

xvn.  Kal.  Aprilis 

XVI.           „          „ 

17.  xv<.               „ 

XIII.      „           „ 

XVI           „         „ 

XV.             „          „ 

18.  xv.                „ 

TO.    XIV.                    ,, 

XII.        „           „ 
XI.          ,,           ,. 

xv.        „       „ 

XIV.           „          „ 

20.    XIII.                   „ 

X.            „           , 

XIII.         „         , 

XII             ,,          „ 
XI. 

22     XI.                        „ 

VIII.       „           , 

XI.            „         , 

x.          ,,      , 

x.           „       „ 

IX.              „         „ 

25.  viii.     ,,       „ 

27.  vi.        „       „ 

"I-                M                  »» 

vi.         „       „ 

28.  v.         „       „ 
29.  iv.       ,,       „ 

[prid.  Kal.  Mart. 

iv.         „       „ 

"I.         »>      »> 

30.    HI.          „           „ 

in  leap-year,  the 

III.         J»       » 

prid.       ,.       „ 

31.  prid.     „        „ 
(So  Aug.,  Dec.) 

vi.  Kal.  (2^th)  being 
counted  twice.] 

prid.      „       ,,             So  June,  Sept.,  Nov. 
(So  May,  July,  Oct.) 

NOTE.  —  Observe  that  a  date  before  the  Julian  Eeform  (B.C.  46) 
is  to  be  found  not  by  the  above,  but  by  taking  the  earlier  reckoning 
of  the  number  of  days  in  the  month. 

85.     MEASURES  OF  VALUE. 

1.  The  Money  of  the  Romans  was  in  early  times  wholly  of 
copper,  the  unit  being  the  As.     This  was  nominally  a  pound,  but 
actually  somewhat  less,  in  weight,  and  was  divided  into  twelve 
unciae.     In  the  third  century  B.C.  the  As  was  reduced  by  degrees 
to  one-twelfth  of  its  original  value.     At  the  same  time  silver  coins 
w^re  introduced ;  the  Denarius  =  10  Asses,  and  the  Sestertius  or 
sesterce  (semis-tertius,  or  half-third,  represented  by  IIS  or  IIS  = 
duo  et  semis)  =  2^  Asses. 

2.  The  Sestertius,  being  probably  introduced  at  a  time  when  it 
was  equal  in  value  to  the  original  AS,  came  to  be  used  as  the  unit 
of  value :  hence  nummus,  coin,  was  used  as  equivalent  to  Sester- 
tius.    Afterwards,  by  the  reductions  in  the  standard,  four  asses 
became   equal  to   a  sesterce.      Gold  was   introduced    later,    the 
aureus  being  equal  to  100  sesterces. 


236  MEASURES    OF   VALUE.  [85. 

The  value  of  these  coins  is  seen  in  the  following  Table :  — 

2<|  asses  =  i  sestertius  or  nummus  (HS),  value  about    4  cents. 
10    asses  or  4  sestertii  =  i  denarius  ...       „          ,,      16     ,, 
looo    sestertii  =  i  sestertium ,,         ,,      $40.00. 

3.  The  Sestertium  (probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius) 
was  a  sum  of  money,  not  a  coin ;  the  word  is  inflected  regularly 
as  a  neuter  noun:    thus,   tria  sestertia  =  $l20.00.     When  com- 
bined with  a  numeral  adverb,  hundreds  of  thousands   (centena 
milia)  are  to  be  understood  :  thus  decies  sestertium  (decies  HS)  = 
$40,000.     In  the   statement  of   large   sums  the  noun   is   often 
omitted:  thus  sexagies  (Rose.  Am.  11)  signifies,  sexagies  [centena 
milia]  sestertium  (6,000,000  sesterces)  =  $240,000. 

4.  In  the  statement  of  sums  of  money  in  cipher,  a  line  above 
the  number  indicates  thousands ;  lines  at  the  sides  also,  hundred- 
thousands.    Thus  HS.  DC.  =  600  sestertii ;  —  HS.  DC.  =  600,000  ses- 
tertii, or  600  sestertia;  —  HS.  [DC]  =  60,000,000  sestertii. 

5.  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

12  uncise  {inches)  =  i  Roman  Foot  (pes,  11.65  English  inches). 
i£  Feet=  i  Cubit.  —  2^  Feet=  i  Degree  or  Step  (gradus). 
5  Feet  =  i  Pace  (fassus).  — 1000  Paces  (mille passuum)  =  i  Mile. 

The  Roman  mile  was  equal  to  4850  English  feet.  The  Ju- 
gerum,  or  unit,  of  measure  of  land,  was  an  area  of  240  (Roman) 
feet  long  and  120  broad ;  a  little  less  than  f  of  an  English  acre. 

6.  MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT. 

12  uncise  (ounces')  =  one  pound  (libra,  about!  Ib.  avoirdupois). 
For  fractional  parts  of  the  pound,  see  Lexicon,  art.  as.    The 
Talent  was  a  Greek  weight  =  60  librae. 

7.  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

12  cyathi  =  i  sextarius  (nearly  a  pint). 

16  sextarii  =  i  modius  (peck). 

6  sextarii  =  i  congius  (3  quarts,  liquid  measure). 

8  congii  =  i  amphora  (6  gallons). 


APPENDIX. 


LATIN  was  originally  the  language  of  the  plain  of  Latium,  lying 
south  of  the  Tiber,  the  first  territory  occupied  and  governed  by  the 
Romans.  This  language,  together  with  the  Greek,  Sanskrit,  Zend 
(old  Persian),  the  Sclavonic  and  Teutonic  families,  and  the  Celtic, 
are  shown  by  comparative  philology  to  be  offshoots  of  a  common 
stock,  a  language  once  spoken  by  a  people  somewhere  in  the  in- 
terior of  Asia,  whence  the  different  branches,  by  successive  migra- 
tions, peopled  Europe  and  Southern  Asia. 

The  name  Indo-European  (or  Aryan)  is  given  to  the  whole 
group  of  languages,  as  well  as  to  the  original  language  from  which 
the  branches  sprang.  By  an  extended  comparison  of  the  cor- 
responding roots,  stems,  and  forms,  as  they  appear  in  the  different 
branches,  the  original  ("Indo-European")  root,  stem,  or  form  can 
in  very  many  cases  be  determined;  and  this  is  used  as  a  model, 
or  type,  to  which  the  variations  may  be  referred.  A  few  of  these 
forms  are  given  in  the  grammar  for  comparison  (see,  especially, 
p.  59).  A  few  are  here  added  for  further  illustration : 

1.    Case  Forms  (Stem  VAK,  voice). 


Indo-Eur. 

Sanskr. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

SING.  Norn. 

vaks 

vaks 

ty 

vox 

Gen. 

vakas 

vachas 

6ir6s 

vocis 

Dat. 

vakai 

vache 

6irl 

voci 

Ace. 

Vakam 

vacham 

6ira 

vocem 

Abl. 
Loc. 

vakat 
vaki 

vachas 
vachi 

(gen.  or  dat.) 
(dat.) 

voce(d) 
(dat.) 

Instr. 

vaka 

vacha 

(dat.) 

(abl.) 

PLUR.  Nom. 

vakas 

vachas 

fores 

voces 

Gen. 

vakam 

vacham 

dw&v 

ocum 

Dat. 

vakbhyams 

vagbhyas 

6\//l 

vocibus 

Ace. 

vakams 

vachas 

forces 

voces 

Abl. 

vakbhyams 

(as  dat.) 

(gen.  or  dat.) 

vocibus 

Loc. 

vaksvas 

vaksu 

(dat.) 

Instr. 

vakbhis 

vagbhis 

(dat.) 

(abl.) 

(For  Verb-Forms,  see  p.  59.) 


238 


APPENDIX. 


2.    Cardinal  Numbers. 


Indo-Eur. 

Sanskr. 

Greek. 

1 

2 

dva 

[eka] 
dva 

[*] 

dto 

3 

tri 

tri 

r/oets 

4 

kvatvar 

chatur 

(Y^crcrc 

5 

kvankva 

panchan 

•jrtvre 

6 

ksvaks 

shash 

%£ 

7 

saptam 

saptan 

€7TT& 

8 

aktam 

ashtun 

OKT& 

9 

navam 

navan 

tvvta 

10 

dakam 

dasan 

dtKCL 

12 

dvadakam 

dva-dasan 

dddcicc 

13 

tridakam 

trayo-dasan 

TplffKCL 

20 

dvidakanta 

vinsati 

elVoo-t 

30 

tridakanta 

trinsati 

TpldKO 

100 

kantam 

satam 

€Kar6i> 

Latin. 

[unus] 

duo 

tres 

quattuor 

quinque 

sex 

septem 

octo 

novem 

decem 

duodecim 

tredecim 

viginti 

triginta 

centum 


Latin. 

pater 

iriater 

socer 

imrus 

frater 

soror 

potis 

domus 

sedes 

vetus  (old) 

ager 

bos 

ovis 

sus 

jugum 

rota  (wheel) 

medius 

suavis 

The  immigrants  who  peopled  the  Italian  peninsula  also  divided 
into  several  branches,  and  the  language  of  each  branch  had  its  own 
development,  until  they  were  finally  crowded  out  by  the  dominant 
Latin.  Fragments  of  some  of  these  dialects  have-  been  preserved, 
in  monumental  remains,  or  as  cited  by  Roman  antiquarians,  though 
no  literature  now  exists  in  them  ;  and  other  fragments  were  prob- 
ably incorporated  in  that  popular  or  rustic  dialect  which  formed 
the  basis  of  the  modern  Italian.  The  most  important  of  these 
ancient  languages  of  Italy  —  not  including  Etruscan,  which  was 

*  Clansman. 


3. 

Familiar  and  Household  Words. 

Indo-Eur. 

Sanskr. 

Greek. 

Father. 

patar- 

pitri- 

TTCLTrjp 

Mother. 

matar- 

matri- 

V'Tfr'np 

Father-in-law. 

evakura- 

cva£iira- 

CKVpOS 

Daughter-in-law. 

snusha- 

snusha- 

VVOS 

Brother. 

bhratar- 

bhratri- 

fppdTTJp 

Sister. 

svasar-  (?) 

svasar- 

[dde\(prj 

Master. 

pati- 

pati- 

TTOffLS 

House. 

dama- 

dama- 

do/uios 

Seat. 

sadas- 

sadas- 

Zdos 

Year. 

vatas- 

vatsa- 

ZTOS 

Field. 

agra- 

ajra- 

dypds 

Ox,  Cow. 

gau- 

go- 

(3ovs 

Sheep  (Ewe). 

avi- 

avi- 

&LS 

Swine  (Sow). 

su- 

su- 

6s,  o-tfs 

Yoke. 

yuga- 

yuga- 

£wybv 

Wagon. 

rata- 

rata- 

[ctyaa^a] 

Middle. 

madhya- 

madhya- 

/JL^ffOS 

Sweet. 

svadu- 

svadu- 

7)5lJS 

APPENDIX. 


239 


of  uncertain  origin  —  were  the  Oscan  of  Campania,  and  the  Um- 
brian  of  the  northern  districts.  Some  of  their  forms  as  compared 
with  the  Latin  may  be  seen  in  the  following : 


aragetud 

censtur 
censazet 
contrud,  N. 


Latin.  Oscan. 

accinere 

alteri(loc.)   alttrei 
argento 
avibus 
censor 
censebit 
contra,  F. 
cornlcem 
dextra 
dicere 
dixerit 
•iuodecim 
extra 
facito 
fecerit 
iertote 
fratribus 
ibi 

mperator 
nter 
iceto 
magistro 
medius 
mugiatur 
multare 


Umbrian. 
arkane 


deicum 
dicust 

ehtrad 
factud 
fefacust 


curnaco 
destrn 
(cf.  venum-do) 

desenduf 


fertuta 
fratrus 


embratur 

anter 

licitud 


anter 


moltaum 


mestra 

mefa 

mugatu 


Latin, 
neque 
per 
portet 
quadrupedibus 


Oscan. 
nep 
perum 


quatuor 

quinque 

qui,  quis 

quid 

quod 

cui 

quom 

rectori 

siquis 

stet 

subvoco 

sum 

est 

sit 

fuerit 

fuerunt 

fuat 

tertium 

ubi 

uterque 

utrique 


petora 

pomtis 

pis 

pid 

pod 

piei 

regaturei 
staiet(staieet) 

sum 

iest 

set 

fust 

fufans 

fuid 


Umbrian. 

portaia 

peturpursus 

petur 

pis 

pod 

pone,  pune 

svepis 

subocau 

fust 

fuia 
tertim 


puturus  pid 
putrespe 


puf 
puterei® 

Fragments  of  early  Latin  are  preserved  in  inscriptions  dating 
back  to  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era ;  and  some  Laws 
ure  attributed  to  a  much  earlier  date,  —  to  Romulus  (B.  c.  750)  and 
!Numa  (B.  c.  700) ;  and  especially  to  the  Decemvirs  (Twelve  Tables, 
5.  c.  450) ;  but  in  their  present  form  no  authentic  dates  can  be  as- 
signed to  them.  Some  of  these  are  usually  given  in  a  supplement 
to  the  Lexicon.  (See  also  Cic.  de  Legibus,  especially  ii.  8,  iii.  3,  4.) 

Latin  did  not  exist  as  a  literary  language,  in  any  compositions 
known  to  us,  until  about  B.  c.  200.  At  that  time  it  was  already 
strongly  influenced  by  the  writings  of  the  Greeks,  which  were  the 
:-hief  objects  of  literary  study  and  admiration.  The  most  popular 
[lays,  those  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  were  simply  translations  from 
(freek,  introducing  freely,  however,  the  popular  dialect  and  the 
slang  of  the  Roman  streets.  As  illustrations  of  life  and  manners 
t'aey  belong  as  much  to  Athens  as  to  Rome.  And  the  natural 
growth  of  a  genuine  Roman  literature  seems  to  have  been  thus 


240  APPENDIX. 

very  considerably  checked  or  suppressed.  Orations,  rhetorical 
works,  letters,  and  histories,  —  dealing  with  the  practical  affairs 
and  passions  of  politics,  —  seem  to  be  nearly  all  that  sprang  direct 
from  the  native  soil.  The  Latin  poets  of  the  Empire  were  mostly 
court-poets,  writing  for  a  cultivated  and  luxurious  class ;  satires  and 
epistles  alone  keep  the  flavor  of  Roman  manners,  and  exhibit  the 
familiar  features  of  Italian  life. 

In  its  use  since  the  classic  period,  Latin  is  known  chiefly  as 
the  language  of  the  Civil  Code,  which  gave  the  law  to  a  large  part 
of  Europe ;  as  the  language  of  historians,  diplomatists,  and  philos- 
ophers during  the  Middle  Age,  and  in  some  countries  to  a  much 
later  period ;  as  the  official  language  of  the  Church  and  Court  of 
Rome,  down  to  the  present  day ;  as,  until  recently,  the  common 
language  of  scholars,  so  as  still  to  be  the  ordinary  channel  of  com- 
munication among  many  learned  classes  and  societies ;  and  as  the 
universal  language  of  Science,  especially  of  the  descriptive  sciences, 
so  that  many  hundreds  of  Latin  terms,  or  derivative  forms,  must  be 
known  familiarly  to  any  one  who  would  have  a  clear  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  the  natural  world,  or  be  able  to  recount  them  intelli- 
gibly to  men  of  science.  In  some  of  these  uses  it  may  still  be 
regarded  as  a  living  language ;  while,  conventionally,  it  retains  its 
place  as  the  foundation  of  a  liberal  education. 

During  the  classical  period  of  the  language,  Latin  existed  not 
only  in  its  literary  or  urban  form,  but  in  several  local  dialects, 
known  by  the  collective  name  of  lingua  rustica,  far  simpler  in  the 
forms  of  inflection  than  the  classic  Latin.  This,  it  is  probable,  was 
the  basis  of  modern  Italian,  which  has  preserved  many  of  the 
ancient  words  without  aspirate  or  case-inflection,  as  orto  (Tiortus), 
genie  (gens).  In  the  colonies  longest  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
Latin  —  often  in  its  ruder  and  more  popular  form  —  grew  into  the 
language  of  the  common  people.  Hence  the  modern  languages 
called  "Romance"  or  "Romanic";  viz.,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portu- 
guese, and  French,  together  with  the  Catalan  of  Northeastern 
Spain,  the  Provencal  or  Troubadour  language  of  the  South  of 
France,  the  "  Rouman  "  or  Walachian  of  the  lower  Danube  (Rou- 
mania),  and  the  "  Roumansch  "  of  some  districts  of  Switzerland. 

A  comparison  of  words  in  several  of  these  tongues  with  Latin 
will  serve  to  illustrate  that  process  of  phonetic  decay  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  in  the  body  of  this  Grammar,  as  well  as 


APPENDIX. 


241 


the  degree  in  which  the  substance  of  the  language  has  remained 
unchanged.  Thus,  in  the  verb  to  be  the  general  tense-system  has 
been  preserved  from  the  Latin  in  all  these  languages,  together 
with  both  of  the  stems  on  which  it  is  built,  and  the  personal 
endings,  somewhat  abraded,  which  can  be  traced  throughout.  The 
following  exhibit  the  verb-forms  with  considerably  less  alteration 
than  is  found  in  the  other  Romanic  tongues :  — 


Latin. 

Italian. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese. 

French. 

Provencal. 

sum 

sono 

soy 

s6u 

suis 

son  (sui) 

es 

sei 

eres 

es 

es 

ses  (est) 

est 

e 

es 

he 

est 

es  (ez) 

sumus 

siamo 

somos 

s6mos 

sommes 

sem  (em) 

estis 

siete 

sois 

sois 

etes 

etz  (es) 

sunt 

sono 

son 

sao 

sont 

sont  (son) 

eram 

era 

era 

era 

etais 

era 

eras 

eri 

eras 

eras 

etais 

eras 

erat 

era 

era 

era 

etait 

era 

eramus 

eravamo 

eramos 

eramos 

etions 

eram 

eratis 

eravate 

erais 

fcreis 

etiez 

eratz 

erant 

erano 

eran 

erao 

etaient 

eran 

fui 

foi 

fui 

fui 

fus 

fui 

fuisti 

fosti 

fuiste 

foste 

fus 

fust 

fuit 

fu 

fue 

f6i 

fut 

fo  (fon) 

fuimus 

fummo 

fuimos 

fomos 

fumes 

fom 

fuistis 

foste 

fuisteis 

fostos 

fates 

fotz 

fuerunt 

fiirono 

fueron 

forao 

furent 

foren 

sim 

sia 

sea 

seja 

sois 

sia 

sis 

sii 

seas 

sejas 

sois 

sias 

sit 

sia 

sea 

seja 

soit 

sia 

simus 

siamo 

seamos 

sejamos 

soyons 

siam 

sitis 

siate 

seais 

sejais 

soyez 

siatz 

sint 

siano 

sean 

sejao 

soient 

sian 

fuissem 

fossi 

fuese 

fdsse 

fusse 

fos 

fuisses 

fossi 

fueses 

fosses 

fusses 

fosses 

fuisset 

fosse 

fuese 

fosse 

fut  ^ 

fossa  (fos) 

fuissemus 

fossimo 

fuesemos 

fOssemos 

fussions 

fossem 

fuissetis 

foste 

fueseis 

fdsseis 

fussiez 

fossetz 

fuissent 

fossene 

fuesen 

fOssem 

fussent 

fossen 

es 

sii 

se 

se 

sois 

sias 

esto 

sia 

sea 

seja 

soit 

sia 

este 

siate 

sed 

sede 

soyez 

siatz 

sunto 

siano 

sean 

sejao 

soient 

sian 

esse 

essere 

ser 

ser 

etre 

esser 

[sens] 

essendo 

siendo 

sendo 

etant 

essent 

PRINCIPAL  ROMAN  WRITERS. 

B.C. 

T.  Maccius  Plautus,  Comedies 254-184 

Q..  Ennius,  Annals,  Satires,  &c.  (Fragments)    .     .     .  239-169 

M.  Porcius  Cato,  Husbandry,  Antiquities,  &c.    .     .     .  234-149 

M.  Pacuvius,  Tragedies  (Fragments) 220-130 

P.  Terentius  Afer  (Terence),   Comedies 195-159 

L.  Attius,  Tragedies  (Fragments) 170-75 

C.  Lucilius,  Satires  (Fragments) 148-103 

M.  Terentius  Varro,  Husbandry,  Antiquities,  &c.   .     .  116-28 

M.  Tullius  Cicero,  Orations,  Letters,  Dialogues     .     .  106-43 

C.  Julius  Caesar,  Commentaries    . 100-44 

T.  Lucretius  Carus,  Poem  "De  Rerum  Natura  "    .     .  95-52 

C.  Valerius  Catullus,  Miscellaneous  Poems    ....  87-47 

C.  Sallustius  Crispus  (Sallust),  Histories      ....  86-34 

Cornelius  Nepos,  Lives  of  Famous  Commanders    .     .  <?.  /<^0-  £ 

P.  Vergilius  Maro,  Eclogues,  Georgics,  sEneid      .     .  -70-19 

Q^  Horatius  Flaccus,  Satires,  Odes,  Epistles     .     .     .  65-8 

Albius  Tibullus,  Elegies 54-J3 

Sex.  Aurelius  Propertius,  Elegies 5I-I5 

T.  Livius  Patavinus  (Livy),  Roman  History 59-A.  D.  17 

P.  Ovidius  Naso  (Ovid),  Metamorphoses,  Fasti,  &c.  .     .     .  43- A.  D.  18 

Phaedrus,  Fables -  ^  I 

Valerius  Maximus,  Anecdotes,  &c -31 

C.  Velleius  Paterculus,  Roman  History I9~3I 

Pomponius  Mela,  Husbandry  &  Geography  ....  -co 

A.  Persius  Flaccus,  Satires A.D.  34-62 

L.  Annseus  Seneca,  Philos.  Letters,  &c.  ;  Tragedies    ./?.  <?.  3  Q)-6$  — . 
M.  Annaaus  Lucanus,  Historical  Poem  "  Pharsalia"  . 

Q^  Curtius  Rufus,  History  of  Alexander 

C.  Plinius  Secundus  (J^linj),  Nat.  Hist.,  &c.     .     .     . 

C.  Valerius  Flaccus,  HelPv ic  Poem,  "  Argonautica"    .  -88 

P.  Papinius  Statius,  Heroic  Poems,  "  Thebais,"&c.    .  61-96 

C.  Silius  Italicus,  Heroic  Poem,  "  Punica"    ....  25-100 

D.  Junius  Juvenalis   (Juvenal),    Satires 40-120 

L.  Annaeus  Florus,  Hist.  Abridgment -120 

M.  Valerius  Martialis  (Martial),  Epigrams  ....  43-104 

M.  Fabius  Quintilianus,  Rhetoric 40-118 

C.  Cornelius  Tacitus,  Annals,  History,  &c 60-118 

C.  Plinius  Caecilius  Secundus  (Pliny  Junior)  Letters  61-115 

C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus,  Biographies 70- 

Apuleius,  Philos.  Writings,  "  Metamorphoses  "  &c.   .  no- 

A.  Gellius,  Miscellanies,  "  Noctes  Atticae  "     .     .     .     .  about -i 80 

f  Q^  Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus,  Apologist     .     .  160-240 

fM.  Minucius  Felix,  Apol.  Dialogue about -250 

fFirmianus  Lactantius,  Theology 250-325 

fD.  Magnus  Ausonius,  Miscellaneous  Poems      .     .     • 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Roman  History 

Claudius  Claudianus,  Poems,  Panegyrics,  &c.    .     .     . 

f  Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens,  Christian  Poems  .     .  348~410 

t  Aurelius  Augustinus,  Confessions,  Discourses,  &c.     .  354-430 

Anicius  Manlius  Boethius,  Philos.  Dialogues     .     .     .  47°~52JZC'~ 
t  Christian  writers. 


C. 


INDEX. 


NOTE. —  The  Figures  refer  to  pages;  the  Letters  to  the  upper,  middle,  or 
lower  part  of  the  page. 


AB,  preposition  88  c,  with  agent,  after 
passives  138  b. 

Abbreviations  of  prsenomens  32. 

Ablative  12  a,  ending  13  b,  in  -ABUS 
14  c,  in  I  18  b,  35  c,  37  c,  in  is  (3d 
decl. )  21  b,  in  -UBUS  28  c,  neuter  used 
adverbially  84  c,  EO  and  QUO  49  c, 
after  prepositions  88,  with  AB  or  DE 
for  partitive  gen.  116  b,  of  crime  or 
punishment  119  c;^with  dat.  after 
verbs  122  b,  with  PRO  ipr  defence  &c. 
130  c,  syntax  of  134-143,  of  separa- 
tion 135  a,  of  place  from  which  135  c, 
of  source  136  c,  of  material  137  b, 
of  cause  137  b,  with  adjectives  &c. 
137  c,  of  agent  138  b,  after  compara- 
tives 138  c,  after  PLUS  &c.  139  a,  of 
means  139  b,  of  accompaniment  139 
c,  after  UTOR  &c.  140  b,  of  degree  of 
difference  140  c,  of  quality  141  a,  of 


a,  of  time  143  b,  time  how-long  143  c, 
of  distance  144  a,  place  from  which 
144  c,  for  locative  145  a,  place  where 
145^;,  way  by  u^/ich  145  c,  w,ith  prep- 
ositions 145  a,  with  AB  for  agent  147 
c,  distinguished  from  abl.  of  instru- 
ment 148  a. 

ABSCJUE  89  a. 

Abstract  nouns  in  pltir.  30  c,  with 
neut.  adj.  106  a.  expressed  by  neut. 
adj.  107  c. 

AC  see  ATQUE;  AC  si  with  subj.  174  c. 

Accent  7  c. 

Accompaniment  abl.  of  139  c. 

Accusative  11  c,  endings  13  a,  in  IM 
18  b,  35  c,  in  is  19  a,  37  c,  neut.  used 
as  adv.  83  c  (gen.  85  a),  after  prep. 
88,  145  a,  with  verbs  of  remembering 
&c.  119  a,  with  impers.  120,  132  b, 
with  dat.  123  c,  124  c,  after  com- 
pounds of  preps.  125  c,  after  AD  for 
dat.  128  c,  after  adj.  129  c,  construc- 
tion of  131,  as  div.  obj.  131  a,  with 
verbs  of  feeling  131  b,  cognate  131  c, 
verbs  of  taste  &c.  131  c,  after  com- 
pounds 132  a,  constructive  132  a, 
two  ace.  132  b,  adverbial  133  a,  syn- 
ecdochical  133  b,  in  exclamations 
133  c,  as  subj.  of  infin.  133  c,  of  dura- 
tion 133  c,  143  c,  of  space  133  c,  144  a, 


of  distance  133  c,  144  a,  place  whither 
144  c,  in  ind.  disc.  188  a,  of  anticipa- 
tion 190  c,  in  subst.  clauses  194  a, 
after  passives  194  b,  after  verbs  01 
promising  &c.  195  a. 

Action,  nouns  of  96  b,  97  c,  governing 
genitive  117  a. 

AD  88  b,  following  noun  148  a. 

Adjectives  33,  of  two  termin.  35  a,  of 
one  termin.  36  a,  of  common  gender 
38  a,  used  as  adv.  38  a,  deriv.  of  96 
b,  98  a,  compound  100  b,  modifying 
102  a,  adj.  phrase  102  b,  agreement 
of  105,  in  appos.  105  b,  in  agr.  with 
appos.  106  b,  with  part.  106  c,  used 
as  nouns  106  c,  neuter  107  b,  used 
for  gen.  108  a,  114  a,  qualifying  act 
108  c,  for  obj.  gen.  108  b,  in  rel. 
clause  111  b,  neut.  used  partitively 
115  c,  relat.  gov.  gen.  117  c,  of  feel- 
ing with  ANIMI  118  b,  gov.  gen.  and 
dat.  118  c,  129  a,  followed  by  dat.  or 
ace.  with  AD  128  c,  dat.  or  ace.  129  b, 
of  want  with  abl.  136  a,  DIGNUS  &c. 
with  abl.  137  c. 

ADMODUM  41  a. 

Adverbs  9  c,-84,  compar.  of  40  b,  com- 

*  pound  100  c,  numeral  43  c,  correl. 
49  c,  classif.  of  85,  86,  modifying  102 
a,  phrase  102  b,  qualifying  noun 
107. b,  rel;  or  dem.  equiv.  to  pron. 
Ill  c,  partitive  use  116  a,  formed 
with  TENUS  147  a,  used  as  prepos. 
147  b,  followed  by  QUAM  147  c. 

Adverbial  phrase  102  b,  accus.  133  b, 
in  abl.  absolute  143  a. 

Adversative  conjunctions  94  a. 

ADVERSUS  89  b,  as  adverb  147  b. 

Affix,  close  and  open  96. 

Agency,  nouns  of  96  b,  97  c,  govern- 
ing gen.  117  a. 

Agent  138  b,  abl.  with  AB  147  c. 

Agnomen  32  b. 

Agreement  103  b,  nouns  in  for  part, 
gen.  116  c. 

Aio  81  c. 

Alcaic  strophe, 

ALIENUS  W^th  DOMUS  145  b. 

ALi-  (stem  of  ALIUS)  48  b. 
ALIUS  infl.  of  34  c,  with  abl.  139  b. 
Alphabet,  classitication  of  1  b. 
AM  BO,  infl.  42  b. 
AMPLIUS,  constr.  of  139  a. 


246 


INDEX. 


AN,  ANNE,  ANNON,  interrog.  parti- 
cles 200  c. 

ANTE  89  b,  om.  in  dates  146  c,  as  adv. 
147  b,  followed  by  QUAM  147  c,  AN- 
TE DIEM  146  c. 

Antecedent  of  relative  110  a,  implied 

110  b,  in  both  clauses  110  c,  omitted 

111  a. 
Antepenult  7  c. 

ANTEQUAM  with  relat.  clauses  179  c. 

Aorist  53  b. 

APAGE  82  b. 

Apodosis  166  a,  c. 

Appositive  102  a,  104    a,  adjectives 

105  b,  neut.  adj.  107  c,  in  periphr. 

form  112  a,  expr.  by  gen.  115  a,  with 

NOMEN  EST,  127  a,  after  verbs  of 

naming  132  c. 
APUD  89  c. 

APT  us  followed  byrel.  andsubj.  185  c. 
Arsis  and  Thesis  222  b. 
AS,  the  unit  of  value  235  c. 
Asclepiadic  verse  230. 
Asking,  verbs  of,  with  two  ace.  132  c. 
Aspirate  1  c,  115  c. 
Assimilation    of   consonants    36,    in 

prepos.  4  a. 

AT  95  b,  AT  VERO  96  a. 
ATQUE  95  a. 

Attraction  of  Relative  110. 
Attributive  adj.  105  b. 
AUDEO  77  a. 
AUSIM  77  b. 

AUT  95  b,  in  questions  201  c. 
AUTEM  95  b,  position,  96  a. 
AVE  82  b. 


BELLI  (locative)  145  a. 
Birth,  place  of  in  abl.  137  a. 
BOS,  decl.  of  22  b,  c. 


C  and  G  2  a,  for  QIT  2  b,  interchanged 
with  T  4  b,  pronunciation  of  6  a. 

Caesura  222  b. 

Calendar,  Roman  235  a. 

Cardinal  numbers  41  b,  declined  42  b. 

CARO,  decl.  25  c. 

Cases  11  b,  endings  13  b,  forms  (see 
declensions)  construction  of  113  b. 

Catalectic  verse.  / 

CAUSA  with  gen.  115  b,  138  a.    ' 

Causal  conjunctions  94  b,  clauses  102  c, 
with  subjunct.  181  b. 

Causative  verbs  99  a. 

Cause,  with  subjunctive  185 b. 

CAVE  in  prohibitions  192  c. 

-CE  enclitic  45  b. 

CELO  with  two  accusatives  133  a. 

CEDO  (defective)  82  b. 

CERTE  and  CERTO  87  b. 

CEU  with  subjunct.  174  c. 

Choliambic  verse  226  b. 

Choi-iambic  verse  228  b. 

CIRCA,  CIRCITER,  CTRCUM,  CIS  89  C. 

ciRCiTER  as  adv.  147  b. 

Cities,  gender  of  10  c. 

CITRA  89  c,  following  noun  148  a. 


CLAM  as  prepos.  147  b. 

Clauses  102  b,  adv.  use  84  b,  with 
neut.  in  appos.  107  c,  limited  by 
gen.  114  b,  with  impersonals  120  a, 
dependent,  in  seq.  of  tenses  162  a. 

Close  syllables  5  c,  affixes  9  b,  in. com- 
pounds 65  a. 

Commands  in  subjunct.  149  c,  impera- 
tive 51  b,  152  b. 

CCEPI  81  b. 

Cognomen  32  b. 

Collective  nouns  with  plur.  verbs  112  c. 

Combinations  of  consonants  5  a,  192  c. 

Commands,  indirect  191  c. 

Common  gender  11  a,  of  adj.  38  a. 

Comparative  conjunctions  94  b. 

Comparatives,  declensions  37  a,  use 
40  c,  partitive  115  c. 

Comparison,  forms  of  38  b,  irregular 
39  b,  defective  39  c,  of  adverbs  40  b, 
in  appos.  104  b,  of  qualities,  108  c. 

Complementary  ace.  104  b,  intin.  154  b. 

Complete  action,  tenses  of  53  c,  159  c, 
favorite  use  170  c. 

Compounds  of  verbs  65  .a,  of  FACIO 
80  a,  of  FIO  81  c,  of  NON  86  a,  stems 
96  b,  words  100  a,  of  preps,  govern- 
ing ace.  132  a,  with  two  ace.  132  c, 
with  abl.  135  b,  quantity  of  220  b. 

Conditional  conjunctions  94b,  clauses 
W2.  b,  103  a,  166,  classified  167  c. 

C6nTiitions,  partic.  and  gen.  167,  pres- 
ent and  past  168,  future  170  a,  gen- 
eral 171  c,  implied  172  b,  omitted 
17.3  b,  in  indirect  <lis<*7Tursc/89b. 

Conjugation  9b,  60,  the  four  regular 
66-75.  " 

Conjunctions  92,  correlative  49  c,  class- 
es of  93. 

Connectives  103  b. 

Consecutive  clauses  102  c,  103  a,  sub- 
junctive 183  c. 

Consonants  1  b,  stems  12  c,  36  a. 

Constructio  prcegnans  132  a. 

CONTRA  90  a,  as  adv.  147  b,  following 
noun  148  a. 

Contraction  3  a,  shown  by  circumflex, 
7  a. 

Co-ordinate  clause  102  c. 

Correlatives  49. 

Countries,  gender  of  10  c. 

Crime,  expressed  by  ablative  119  c. 

CUM  (prep.)  90 a,  as  enclitic  44 c,  47 c. 

CUM  (conj.)  95  c,  with  subjunct.  176 c, 
178  c,  as  indef.  relat.  177  a,  causal 
w.  subj,  180  c,  181  c,  like  QUOD  with 
indie.  180  c,  CUM  TUM  with  indie. 
181  a,  causal  with  indicative  181,  for 
pres.  pass.  part.  202  c. 


Dactylic  Verse  224  b. 

Dative  11  c,  ending  13  b,  in  -ABUS  14  c, 
in  is  (3d  deck)  21  b,  -UBUS  28  c,  in  I 
34  b,  construction  121,  with  trans- 
itives  121  c,  after  verbs  of  motion 
(poet.)  122 b,  with  abl.  id.,  after  in- 
trans.  122  c,  123,  with  ace.  123  c,  124  c, 
after  impersonals  124  b,  after  com- 


INDEX. 


247 


pounds  125,  126,  in  poetry  126  c,  of 
possession  id.,  after  comp.  of  ESSE 
127  a,  with  NOMEN  EST  id.,  of 
agency  127  b,  after  participles  and 
passives  id.,  of  service  128  a,  of 
nearness  128  b,  after  nouns  129  b,  of 
advantage  129  c,  used  for  gen.  130  a, 
for  direction  id.,  of  volens  &c.  130  b, 
ethical  id.,  with  infinitive  of  verbs 
governing  dative  155  b. 

Declaratory  sentence  101. 

Declension  12  c,  general  rules  13  a. 

Defective  nouns,  29, 30,  adj.  37,  tenses 
50  b,  verbs  81. ' 

-DEM,  enclitic  45  b. 

Denominative  verbs  99  a,  c. 

Deponents  75  c,  semi-deponents  77  a. 

Derivation  96-100. 

Derivative  verbs  77  b,  99. 

DiGxys  with  abl.  137  c,  with  QUI  and 
siibj.'185c. 

Diphthongs  1  b,  6  a,  long  7  a. 

Diptotes  31  a. 

Distance  (ace. )  133  c  (ace.  or  abl. )  144  a. 

Distributives  43  b. 

DO  MI  (loc.)  145  a. 

DONEC  with  subjunctive  180  b. 

Doubtful  gender  11  a. 

Dual  42  b. 

DUBITO  184  b,  198  b,  200  c. 

BUM  with  pres.  158  a,  id.  followed  by 
secondary  ten8es*"163  c,  (provided) 
with  subj.  175 c,  180 b,  (until)  with 
subj.  180  b,  for  pass.  part.  202  c. 

DUMMODO  with  subj.  175 c,  180 b. 


Early  forms,  alphabet  2,  prosody. 

EDO  80  a. 

EGEO  with  gen.  120  c,  136  b. 

Ellipsis  101  c. 

Emphasis  as  dependent  on  arrange- 
ment 212  c. 

Enclitics,  intensive  45  a,  CUM  44  c. 

ENIM  95  b,  96  a.  x 

Epicene  nouns  11  a. 

Epistolary  tenses  161  b. 

ESCIT,  59  c. 

ESSE  57  c,  comparative  forms  59  c, 
compounds  60,  omitted  113  b,  com- 
pounds with  dative  127  a. 

ET  .  .  .  ET  95  c. 

ETIAM  87  a,  in  answers  201  c. 

E-fsi  175  b,     —  -*-  >  . 

Etymology  1-100.      Vi 

Euphonic  changes  2  c,  3b. 

EX  90  c,  following  noun  148  a,  com- 
pounds of,  with  dative  126  a. 

Exclamations  (accus.)  133 c. 

Exclamatory  sentences  101  b,  accus- 
ative with  infinitive  156  b. 


FA cio  80  c,  compounds  100  c,  facio  ut 

in  periphr.  198  a. 
FAIU  82  a. 
Feeling,  nouns  of,  with  genitive  117  a, 

verbs  of,  with  ace.  131  b. 


( 
Feminine  forms  lacking  masc.  34  b, 

abl.  in  o  34b,_m  -A  of  adj.  of  3d 

decl.  37  a,  abl.  afcl^.  85  a. 
Festivals,  names  oft-plural  30  c. 
FERO  78  b. 


Fillitt|^/verbs  of,  with  abl.  or  genitive 

Final  clauses  102  c,  103  a,  182,  195. 

Finite  verb  113  a. 

FIO  80  c,  defective  comp.  82  c. 

Foot  (in  prosody)  220  e,  classif.  221. 

FORE  UT  for  fut.  inf.  pass.  55 c,  165 c. 

FORIS  (loc.  form)  145 a. 

Frequentative  verbs  77  c,  99  c. 

FRUOR  and  FUNGOR  with  abl.  140  b. 

Future  tense  53  a,  endings  54  c,  61  b,  c, 
of  subj.  83  c,  for  imperative  153  b, 
syntax  159  b,  has  no  relative  time 
179  b,  infin.  expr.  by  FORE  UT  165 c, 
participle  202  a. 

Future  Perfect  53  a,  syntax  161  a, 
used  for  future  id.,  how  repr.  in 
subjunctive  162 b,  in  protasis  170  c. 

Future  infin.  pass.  (sup.  with  IRI)  55 c. 


Games,  names  of,  plural  30  c. 

GAUDEO  77  a. 

Gender  9c,  grammatical  10  a,  of  ap- 
position 104  c,  of  adjective  105  c. 

General  truth  in  seq.  of  tenses,  163  c. 

Genitive  11  c,  plural  ending  13  b,  in 
AI  and  AS  14  b,  in  IUM  19  a,  c,  in 
lus  34  b,  in  appos.  with  possessive 
105  a,  108  b,  construction  113  c,  sub- 
jective 114  a,  in  pred.  b,  with  phrase 
id.,  of  adj.  for  neuter  noun  114 c,  of 
substance  id.,  for  noun  in  apposition 
115  a,  of  quality  and  measure  id., 
of  value  id.  b,  partitive  id.,  after  adj. 
for  noun  116  b,  two  gen.  with  one 
noun  117  a,  objective  117  a,  of  speci- 
fication 118  a,  after  verbs  119  a,  (of 
remembering  &c.  119  a,  of  accus- 
ing &c.  b,  of  emotion  120  a,  imper- 
sonals  120,  of  plenty  and  want  120  c, 
136  b,  140  b,  with  POTIOR  121  a,  127  a, 
of  price  141  c. 

Gentiles,  names  of,  8  b. 

Gerund  50  a,  52  b,  syntax  206  c. 

Gerundive  52  a,  ending  55  b,  periphr. 
forhi  83  c,  with  dative  of  agent  127  c, 
syntax  205  c,  206,  origin  207  a. 

Glyconic  verse  228  b. 

Government  103  c. 

GRATIA  with  gen.  11 5  b,  138  a. 

Greek  accus.  (synecd.)  133  b. 


H  (aspirate)  1  c,  used  with  c  4  c, 
omitted  4  c,  not  reckoned  in  posi- 
tion, 215  c. 

HABEO,  imperative  153  b,  with  perf. 
part.  204  c. 

Heteroclites  31  b. 

Heterogeneous  nouns  31  c. 


248 


INDEX. 


Hexameter  verse. 

HIC  45,  46. 

Hindrance,  subject  of  185  b. 

HUMI  (loc.)  145  c. 


I  in  perf.  55  a,  added  to  root  62  c,  lost 

in  3d  conj.  63  c,  suffix  96  c. 
Iambic  verse. 
ID  QUOD,  lllb. 

IDCIRCO  95  C. 

IDEM  46,  deriv.  45  b. 

IDONEUS  with  QUI  and  subj.  185  c. 

-IER  in  intin.  pass.  65  c. 

IGITUR  95  c,  position  96  a. 

ILLE  45,  46. 

-JM  in  present  subjunctive  65  c. 

IMMO  201  c. 

Imperative  51  b,  termin.  54  b,  a  weak- 
ened 63  a,  drops  termin.  65  a,  sen- 
tence 101  a,  in  commands  152  b,  3d 
person  antiq.  152  c,  future  153  a, 
equiv.  to  condition  172  c. 

Imperfect  53  a,  lengthens  vowel  63  a, 
of  subj.  64 c,  of  hortat.  subj.  150  b, 
optat.  subj.  150 c,  concess.  subj.  151  c, 
syntax  158  b,  in  descriptions  158  c, 
for  pi  up.  id.,  of  surprise  159  a,  for 
perf.  159  b,  in  epist.  style  161  b,  subj. 
in  unfulfilled  cond.  168  b,  in  temp, 
clauses  178 a,  179 a,  subjunctive  re- 
ferring to  present  time  164  a. 

Impersonal  verbs  82,  with  gen.  120 a, 
used  personally  120  b,  with  dative 
124  b,  passive  of  verbs  governing 
dative  126  b,  with  ace.  132  b,  with 
inlin.  154  b,  with  subst.  clause  193 c. 

Impure  syllable  5c. 

IN  90  c,  construction  of  87  b,  146  a. 

Inceptive  forms  62  c,  verbs  (inchoa- 
tive) 77  b,  99  c. 

Incomplete  tenses  53  c. 

Increment  218. 

Indeclinable  nouns  31  a,  gender  10  c, 
adjective  37  c,  49  c. 

Indefinite  subj.  omitted  113  a,  rela- 
tive, equiv.  to  condition  166  c. 

Indicative  51  a,  61,  63,  syntax  148  b, 
tenses  of  157,  in  cond.  clauses  167  b, 
168  a,  in  apod,  of  unfulf.  cond.  169  a, 
in  fut.  cond.  170  a,  in  apod,  of  im- 
plied condition  174  a,  absolute  time 
177  b,  in  inverted  clauses  179  a,  with 
CUM  180  c,  in  causal  clauses  181  b, 
with  QUOD  in  subst.  clauses  199 b. 

INDIGEO  with  genitive  120  c,  136  b. 

INDIGNUS,  with  relative  and  subjunc. 
185  c,  with  ablative  137  c. 

Indirect  discourse  187  c,  subj.  of  infin. 
om.  155  c,  subjunct.  in  subord.  clause 
1K()  a,  example  192. 

Infinitive  51  b,  endings  55 b,  c,  pass,  in 
-IER  65  c,  syntax  153  c,  as  subj.  id., 
with  impers.  154  b,  complementary 
154  b,  for  subst.  clause  154  c,  with 
subj.  ace.  155b,  of  purpose  and  re- 
sult 156  a,  in  exclam.  156  b,  197  c, 
historical  156  c,  tenses  161  b,  only 
used  in  present  165  a,  with  ace.  in 


subst.  clauses  194  a,  with  ace.  after 
passives  194  b,  after  verbs  of  wish- 
ing 195  c,  verbs  of  permission  196  a, 
of  determining  196  b,  used  by  poets 
197  a. 

Inflection  8  a. 

INQUAM  81  c. 

INSTAR  with  gen.  115b. 

Intensive  verbs  77  c,  99  c. 

INTEREST  120  b. 

Interjections  9  c,  95  a. 

Intermediate  clauses  102  c,  with  sub- 
junctive 185c. 

Interrogative  particles  9c,  86  b,  200  a, 
omitted  200  b,  201  a,  sentences  101  b. 

IPSE  (IPSUS)  45,  46c. 

Irregular  nouns  30  b,  verbs  78. 

is  45,  46  c. 

Islands,  gender  of,  10  c. 

ISTE  45,  46. 

ITAQUE  95,  accent  7  c  (ergo,  96  a). 

ITER,  declined  22  b. 


JAM  87  b. 

JECUR,  decl.  22  b. 

JUBEO,  constr.  155  a,  194  a. 

JUCUNDUS,  constr.  of  209  c. 

JUNGO  with  abl.  140  a. 

j  UPPITER,  decl.  22  b. 

JUXTA  91  b,  following  noun  148  a. 


L  doubled  (3d  conj.)  62 b. 

Labial  stems  20  b,  gender  of  24  b,  26  b. 

LATEO  with  acc.  133  a. 

-LIBET  48  a. 

LICET  with  dat.  of  pred.  1§&J»,  with 

subj.  175  b,  176  c,  190  a. 
Lingual  stems  20  c,  gender  24  b,  26  b. 
Liquid  stems  19  b,  gender  24  a,  25. 
Locative  case  12  b,  as  adverb  85  a,  in 

appos.  104  c,  for  place  145  a. 
LOCO  without  prep.  145  c. 
LONGIUS,  constr.  of,  139  a. 


MAGIS  in  compar.  39  a,  109  a. 

MALO  79  b. 

Masculine  adj.  38 a. 

Material,  gen.  of,  114 c,  abl.  137  b. 

MAXIME,  in  comp.  39  a. 

Means,  abl.  of,  139  b. 

Measure,  gen.  of,  115  a,  144  a. 

Meditative  verbs  78  c,  99  c. 

MEMINI  81  b,  imperative  form,  153  b. 

-MET,  enclitic,  45  a. 

Metre  223  c. 

MILITIvE   (lOC.)  145  a. 

MILLE,  decl.  and  constr.  43  a. 
MINIME  41  a,  in  answers  201  c. 
MINORIS  (of  value)  141  c. 
MINUS  41  a,  constr.  of  139  a. 

MIRUM  QUAM   191  b. 

MISCEO  with  abl.  140  a.  'XJ.  *  I  2*  H 

MISERET  83  a,  120  a. 
Modification  of  subj.  or  pred.  102 a.        , 
MODO  with  hort.  subj.  150 a,  175c. 
Monoptotes  31  a.  ^ 


INDEX. 


249 


Months,  gender  of  10  c,  in  -BER  35  c, 
construction  146  c,  division  234  b. 

Moods  50  a,  51,  syntax  of.  148  b. 

JN'otion,  preps,  with  ace.  122 b,  verbs 
fCf  (comp.)  with  ace.  132  a. 

Motive  with  OB  or  PROPTER  138  a. 

Mountains,  gender  of,  10  c. 

Multiplication  43  b. 

Multiplicatives  43  c. 

Mute  stems  20  a. 


N  of  stem  lost  19  b,  inserted  in  3d 

conj.  62  b. 

NAM,  NAMQUE  35  b,  96  a. 
Names  of  men  and  women  32. 
NE  with  hort.  subj.   150  a,  in  final 

clauses  182  a,  in  consec.  183  c,  with 

verbs  of  caution  196  b,  of  fearing 

196  c,  omitted  id. 
-NE  (enclitic)  200  a,  with  me  45  b, 

added  to  interrog.  words  200  c,  in 

double  questions  id. _/ 

NECNE  200  c. 
NEDUM  183  a. 
Negative  particles  9  c,  86  c,  two  equal 

to  affirmative  87  a. 
NEGO  for  DICO  NON  188  a. 

NEQUEO  82  b. 

NE  .  .  .  QUIDEM  87  C,  214  a. 

NESCIO  AN  200  C,   NESCIO  QUIS  191  b. 

Neuter  passives  77  a. 

Neuters,  like  cases  13  a,  in  AL  and  AR 
17  c,  of  adj.  in  s  36  e,  ace.  as  adv. 
84 c,  of  adj.  with  abstr.  nouns  106 a, 
as  noun  107  b,  partitive  use  115  c. 

Neuter  verbs,  with  agent  138  b. 

Neutral  passives  77  b. 

NI,  NISI  176  b,  166  b. 

NIX,  decl.  22 c. 

NOLO  79  b,  NOLI  192  c. 

NOMEN  32 b,  with  dative  127  a. 

Nominative  lib,  formed  from  stems 
12  c,  in  adj.  36  a,  as  subj.  of  verb 
113  a,  used  for  voc.  134  a,  with  opus 
136  b. 

NONNE  200  a. 

Nouns  14-32,  used  as  adj.  38 a,  107  b, 
verbal  50  a,  irreg.  30  b,  derived  96  a, 
compound  100  b,  agreement  of  103  c, 
in  relative  clause  llOc,  understood 
with  gen.  114  a,  governing  dat.  129  c. 

NUM  200  a. 

Number  of  appositive  104  c,  of  adj. 
105  b,  of  verb  112  b. 

Numerals  41  b,  partitive  use  115  c. 

N  umeral  adverbs  43  c. 

NUNC  86  b. 


O  si  with  subjunct.  of  wish  151  a. 

o  for  u  after  u  2b,  in  verb-stems  62  c. 

Object  101  c,  indir.  121  b,  direct  131  a. 

Oblique  cases  12  a. 

oi$vii:,s  with  dative  125 c. 

ODI  81  b. 

Open  syllables  5  c,  pron.  6  a,  affix  9  b, 

in  compounds  65  a. 
OPERA  with  gen.  138  b. 


OPUS  with  abl.  136  a,  with  perf.  part. 

204  c. 

Oratio  O6/igita,see  Indirect  Discourse, 
^rder  of  words  212. 
Ordinal  numbers  41  b,  how  formed, 

42  b,  declined  42  c. 
OS  for  us  15  c. 
os,  ossis,  decl.  22  c. 

P  inserted  before  M  3c,  20  b,  72  b. 

PALAM  147  b.  <i 

Palatal  1  b,  stems  21  c,  gender  2415^" 
27  b,  verbs  62  c. 

Parisyllabic  nouns  17  b,  adj.  35  a. 

PARTE,  without  prepos.  145  c. 

Participial  clause,  equiv.  to  condition 
172  b. 

Participles  50  a,  51  c,  abl.  in  i  20  b; 
37  b,  compared  39  a,  future  of  pur- 
pose 51  c,  205  b, "perfect  as  adj.  25  a, 
82  c,  with  habeo  204  c,  active  52  a, 
periphr.  use  53  c,  83  b,  ending  55  b, 
pres.  of  ESSE  57  c,  of  deponents  76  b, 
51  a,  present  as  adj.  83 c,  in  NS  with 

^gen.  17  c,  with  dative  of  agent  127  c, 
of  source  with  abl.  136  c,  in  URUS 
with  FUI  plup.  subj.  169 c,  in  RUS 
or  BUS  in  future  apod.  170  c,  syntax 
202,  adj.  and  pred.  203. 

Particles  9  c,  84-96,  in  compounds 
100  c,  conditional,  with  subj.  174  c, 
interrogative  200  a. 

Partitive  genitive  115  b. 

PARUM  41  a. 

Passive  voice  50  c,  reflex,  use  id.  83  b, 
with  ace.  133  b,  tennin.  54 b,  intin. 
in  IER  65  c,  participles  of  deponents 
76  c,  of  impersonate  83  b,  followed 
by  dative  122  a,  of  agent  127  c,  sub- 
ject 131  a,  of  verbs  of  feeling  131  b, 
of  asking,  &c.,  with  ace.  132  c,  of 
saying,  &c.,  with  accusative  and 
infinitive  194  b. 

Patronymics  98  b. 

Peculiar  forms,  3d  decl.  22  a,  genders 
25  a,  26  a,  27  b. 

PENES  91  c,  following  noun  148  a. 

Penult  7  c,  quantity  of  218-220. 

PER  91  c,  in  compos.  41  a,  for  agent 
138  b. 

Perfect  tense,  meaning,  53  b,  endings 
54 b,  55  a,  syncop.  65 b,  subjunct.  in 
prohib.  150  a,  152  b,  of  sub.  anti- 
quated 150 c,  concess.  subj.  151  c,  in 
quest.  152  a,  syntax  159  c,  implies 
discontin.  160  a,  in  negatives  160  b, 
for  pres.  in  epist.  style  161  b,  fol- 
lowed by  imp.  subj.  162  c,  subj.  for 
past  act.  after  primary  tenses  162  c, 
used  for  sec.  tenses  in  result  163  a, 
with  fut.  prot.  117  a,  infin.  for  pres. 
165  a,  after  verbs  of  feeling  165  c, 
participle  in  pass,  tenses  52  a,  of 
depon.  id.  syntax  202  b. 

Period  214  b. 

Personal  endings  54  a. 

Persons  of  verbs  54  a,  112  b,  with  relat. 
110  a,  2d  in  subjunct.  149 c,  171  c,  3d 
of  imperative  antiquated  152  c. 


250 


INDEX. 


PERTJESUM  EST   120  a. 

FKTO  with  prepos.  133  a. 

Pherecratic  verse  228  c. 

Phonetic  decay  2c,  3 a. 

Phrases,  gender  10  c,as  adv.  85  b,  modi- 
fying 102  b,  limited  by  gen.  114  b.  . 

PIGET  120  a. 

Place,  relations  of  144  b,  abl.  of  142  b, 
143  b,  whence  144  c,  whither  id., 
where  145,  verbs  of,  constr.  146  b. 

Plants,  gender  of,  10  c,  2d  and  4th 
decl.  29  a. 

Plautus,    use   of  QUAL   with   indie. 

179  b,  prosodial  forms  23  b. 
Pluperfect  53  a,  of  subjunctive,  how 

formed  64  c,  use  150  b,  opt.  subj .  150  c, 
cone.  subj.  151  c,  syntax  160;  for 
imp.  in  epist.  style  161  b,  of  subj.  in 
false  cond.  168  b,  in.  temp,  clauses 
178  a,  179  a. 

Plural  ace.  used  as  adv.  85  b. 

Pluralia  tantum  30  c,  with  distrib.  43  b. 

PLURIS,  gen.  of  value  141  c. 

PLUS,  decl.  of  37  b,  constr.  139 a. 

PCEXITET  120  a. 

POXE  91  C. 

Position  in  prosody  216  c. 

Possessives  in  appos.  with  gen.  105  a, 
108  a,  as  nouns  107  a,  for  gen.  108  b, 
114  a,  neuter  114  c,  abl.  with  REFERT 
&c.  138  a,  with  DOMI  145  b. 

POSSUM  60  b,  infin.  as  future  164c. 

POST  91  c,  with  QUAM  147  c. 

POSTQUAM  with  temp,  clauses  177,c* 

POSTULO  with  prep.  133  a. 

POSTIMDIE  with  gen.  121  a,  with  ace. 
147  b,  with  QUAM  147  c. 

Potential  mood  51.a. 

POTJOR  with  gen.  121  a,  with  abl.  140  b. 

PiwK  91  c,  in  comp.  41  a. 

Prtt'iiomen  32 b. 

PR.T  SERTIM,      strengthening      CUM 

180  c. 
PRyETER  92  a. 

Predicate  101  c,  nom.  104 a,  adj.  105 b, 
gender  106  a,  after  inftn.  155  c.  * 

Prepositions,  assimil.  4  a,  cla^sif.  and 
meaning  88-93,  in  comp.  93  a,  100  c, 
comp.  with  dative  125, 126,  with  ace. 
125  c,  132  a,  c,  with  verbs  of  asking 
132  c,  after  words  of  origin  137  a,  of 
time  143  c,  of  place  142  c,  144  b,  for 
neighborhood  145  c,  constr.  146,  as 
adv.  147  b,  followed  by  QUAM  147  c, 
following  noun  148  a. 

Present  stem  53  c. 

Present  tense  53  a,  endings  54  c,  vowel 
61,  62  b,  of  subjunct.  150-152,  syntax 
157  b,  curative  157  c,  for  future  id., 
historical  158  a,  with  BUM  158  a, 
hist,  followed  by  sec.  tenses  163  c, 
inh'n.  after  past  verb  164 b,  of  mem- 
ory 164  c,  participle  202  a,  supplied 
in  passive  52  a,  202  c. 

Preteritive  verbs  81  b,  160  c. 

Price,  abl.  or  gen.  141  c. 

PKIIHK  with  genitive  121  a,  with  ace. 
1471),  with  QUAM  147  c. 

PRIMO  and  PRIMUM  87  c. 


Principal  parts  of  verbs  64  b,  com- 
bined 65  a. 

PRIUS  with  QUAM  147  c. 

PRIUSQUAM  in  relative  clause 

PRO  92  a,  for  130  c. 

PROCUL,  with  abl.  147  b. 

Prohibitions,  subj.  with  NE  149 
ular  constr.  152  b. 

Pronouns  44,  old  forms  44  b,  gen,  in  i 

44  c,  omitted  113a,  reflexive  44  b,  4<ii;, 
possessive  44  b,   47  b,   105  c, 

48  c,  reciprocal  44  c,  109  c,  der, 

45  a,  as  nouns  107  a,  as  anti 

111  a,  intensive  46  c,  relative  47, 
109  c,  agreement  110,  as  connective 
111  c,  interrog.  and  indef.  47. 

Pronunciation,  5,  6. 

PROPE  92  a,  with  ace.  147  b,  as  adv.  id. 

Proper  names  32  b,  in  plural  30  c. 

PROPTER  92  a,  follow  ing  noun  148  a. 

PROSUM  60  a. 

Protasis  166  a  (see  Condition). 

-PTE  (-pse),  encl.  45  a. 

PUDET  120  a. 

Punishment,  abl.  of,  119  c. 

Pure  syllable  5c. 

Purpose,  iritinitive  of,  156  a,  UT  182  a, 
ways  of  expressing  183  b. 


QUJE  RES  lllb. 

QUyEso  82  a. 

Quality,  genitive  of,  115  a. 

-QUAM  (-pan)  48  a. 

QUAM  with  superl.  40  c,  etym.  48  c, 
in  comparisons  109  a,  138  c,  after 
prep.  147 c,  followed  by  subj.  185 a, 
by  infinitive  188  b,  by  result  clause 
197  b. 

QUAM  si  with  subj.  174  c. 

QUAMLIBET,    QUANQUAM,    QUAMVIS, 

48  a,  151  b,  174  b,  176  c. 
QUANDO  95  c,  as  indef.  rel.  177  a,  with 

ind.  181  b. 

QUANTI,  gen.  of  value  141  c. 
Quantity  6c,  notes  of  215-220. 
QUANTUM  vis  with  subj.  176  c. 
QUASI  with  subj.  174 c. 
-QUE  (end.),  forming  universals  48 c. 
QUEO  82  b. 
Questions  200,  indirect  190  a,  200  b,  in 

ind.  disc.  189  c,  indie,  in  191  b. 
QUI  adverbial  47  b. 
QUIA  95 c,  with  ind.  181  b,  with  subj. 

186  b. 

QUIDEM  87  c,  214  a. 
QUIN  with  subj.  104  a,  NON  QUIN  186  a, 

in  subst.  clause  198  b. 
QUIPPE  with  CUM  180  c. 
QUISQUAM  with  neg.  48  c. 
QUISQUE  with  superl.  4ta,  with  plur. 

verb  112  c.  <*, 

QUO  in  final  clauses  182*,  NON  QUO 

186  c. 

QUOAD,  until,  with  subj.  180 b. 
QUOD  95  c,  with  ind.  181  b,  with  subj. 

186  b,  in  subst'.  clause  199  b,  as  ace. 

of  specif.  199  b,  with  verbs  of  feel- 
ing 199  c. 


INDEX. 


251 


QUOM  95  C. 

Q  i  < )  M  i N us  with  subjunc.  184  a,  after 

verbs  of  caution,  &c.  196  b. 
QUONIAM  95  c,  with  indie.  181  b. 

QUOQUE  87  a. 

R  doubled  in  third  conjugation  62  b. 

HE  APSE  45. 

Reduplication  61  b,  62  a,  b,  63  b,  lost 

in  compounds  65  a,  96  b,   quantity 

219  c. 

REFERT   120b. 

Reflexive  pronouns  44  b,  verbs  76  b,  • 
50  c,  with  ace.  133J>^ 

Relative  pronourrrff,  clauses  102  b, 
classif.  of  193,  equiv.  to  condition 
1124^, 166  c,  of  purpose  182  a,  195,  of 
result  183  c,  197,  of  characteristic 
184  b. 

Result,  infin.  of,  156  a,  perf.  subj.  163  a, 
subjunctive  183  c,  197  a,  elliptical 
197  b. 

Rhythm  215, 

Rivers,  gender  10  c. 

Root  8  c,  96,  of  ESSE  59  c,  of  third  con- 
jugation 62  b. 

RURI,  RURE,  145  a. 

RUS,  constr.  of  144  b. 

S  elided  2  b,  232  a,  becomes  R  3  a,  19  b, 
termin.  of  nom.  12  c,  13a,  in  perf. 
stem  62  a,  63  b,  64  b,  syncop.  65  b. 

SE  added  62  c. 

SALVE  S2b. 

SATIS,   KON  SATIS  41  a. 

SCIN'  5b. 

scio,  imperative  forjafes  c,  153  b. 

SECUNDUM  92  b.  /^ 

SED   951). 
SEMI-DEPONENTS  77  a. 

SEMI-VOWELS  Ic,  i  and  u  2 a. 
SEXEX,  «lecl.  22  c. 

Separation,  with  dat.  126  a,  abl.  134  a. 
Sequence  of  tenses  161  c. 
Sesterces  101  b. 
Sestertius  32  a,  236. 
SELT  (see  SIVE). 

si  166  b,  whether  191  c,  SI  NON  176  b, 
MIROR  si  199  c. 

SI  KM  59  C. ' 

Signs  of  quantity  76,  of  accent  8  a. 
-SIM  in  perf.  subj.  65 c. 
SIMUL  with  abl.  147  b. 

SIMUL    ATQUE    177  C. 

SIX   16(1  b. 

SI\E  92  b. 

Sin gutctrid  fantum  30 c. 

sis '(si vis)  5b. 

six  K  '.r>  i».  J76b. 

-so  in  future  perfect  65 c. 

,soi>i:s  (si   AIDES)  56,  77b. 

SOLKO  77  a. 

Son  s  with  sul»j.  185  a. 

Sp'i<-p.  acc.  <>f.  !•;:;<•,  144.1. 
Ipecification,  acc.  of,  i:t:)a,  abl.  142 a. 
Spoiling,  various,  4  c. 
Stem  s<;,  %,  of  nouns  12  c,  96  b.  incor- 
rect use  13 c,   of  adj.  33 b,  of  verbs 


53  c,  60  c,  changes  54  c,  vowel  61, 
present  64  b,  third  conj.  62  b,  in  u 
62  c,  perf.  64 b,  third  conj.  63 b,  su- 
pine 64  b,  quantity  of  220  a. 

SUB  in  compos.  41  a,  constr.  87  b,  146  a. 

Subject  101  c,  of  verb  113  a,  of  passive 
ma,  of  intin.  133 c. 

Subjunctive  51  a,  present  (vowel- 
change)  61  a,  63  c,  inserts  E  61  c, 
syntax  148  c,  hortat.  149  b,  as  con- 
dition 172  c,  optat.  150  c,  concess. 

151  b,  175  b,  dubit.  152  a,  in  proliib. 

152  b,  tenses  161  c,  in  false  condition 
164  a,  168  b,  in  fut.  coiid.  170  b,  pres. 
becomes  iinperf.  171  b,  third  person 
for  indef.  subjunc.  171  c,  repeated 
action  id.,  potential  173  b,  cautious 
173  c,  with  comi .""and  coinpar.  par- 
ticles 174  c,  relative  time  177  b,  after 
CUM  178  c,  of  protasis  after  ANTE- 
QUAM  &c.  180  a,  after  BUM,  b,  of 
cause  181  b,  185  c,  in  hid.  disc.  181  c, 
186  a,  in  final  clauses  182  a,  after 
NEDUM  183  a,  of  result  183  c,  after 
QUIX  and  QUOMINUS  184  a,  of  char- 
acteristic   184  b,    after_  uxus    and 
SOLUS  185  a,  after  QUAM  id.,  of  re- 
striction 185  b,  after  DIGNUS  &c. 
185  c,  in  intermed,  clauses  id.,  after 
UT  in  subb^,   clauses  195  c,   197  a, 
after  verbs  of  commanding  195  c, 
of    happening    197  ?,,    after    QUAM 
197  b,  in  exclamation?.  197  c,  in  in- 
direct questions  190,  200  '>. 

Subordinate  clauses  102  c. 

Substantive  clauses  102  c,  syntax  193. 

SUPER,  SUPRA  92  c. 

SUBTER  92  b,  constr.  87  b,  146  b. 

Superlative  of  eminence  40  c,  of  parti- 
ciple 109  b,  used  partitively  115  c. 

Supine  29  a,  50  a,  52  b,  stem  53  c,  55  b, 
acc.  of  place  whither  144  c,  syntax 
209. 

Syllables,  division  of  5  b,  pure,  open 
&c.  5c. 

Synesis  103  b,  of  adj.  106  b,  verbs  112 c, 
of  secondary  tenses  166  a. 

Synopsis  64  c. 

Syntax  101-214,  general  rules  210, 211. 


T  for  D  2b,  intercl.  with  c  4b,  end- 
ing 54  c,  61  b,  62  a,  c. 

T^DET  120  a. 

TAMEN,  position  96  a. 

TAMQUAM  with  subj.  174 c. 

TANTI,  gen.  of  value  141  c. 

TANTUM  as  correl.  49  b,  with  hort. 
subj.  150  a. 

TA'XTUM   A  BEST   UT   197  C. 

TK,  end  i  tic  45  c. 

Teaching,  verbs  of  2,  acc.  133 c. 

Temporal  conjunctions  94  c,  clauses 
102  c,  176c. 

-TKR,  sutiix  34  c. 

Tenses  50  a,  52  c,  syntax  157,  sequence 
151  c. 

TENUS  92  c,  construction  146  c,  follow- 
ing noun  148  a. 


252 


INDEX- 


T-5RRA  MARIQUE  145  a. 

Time,  absolute  and  relative,  157  a, 
161  c,  how  long  (ace.)  133  c,  143  b, 
when  (abl.)  143  b. 

Towns,  gender  10  c,  in  us,  fern.  16  a, 
in  E  18  c,  names  of,  constr.  144 b.. 

TRANS  92  c. 

Trees,  gender  10  c. 

TRES  42  C. 

Triptotes  31  a. 

Trochaic  verse  227  a. 

TUM,  TUNC,  87  b,  with  CUM  95  c,  181  a. 


U  stems  (verbs)  62  c,  64  a,  96  c. 

UBI  as  indef.  rel.  177  a,  c. 

ULLUS  with  neg.  48  $. 

ULTRA  93  a,  following  noun  148  a. 

UNQUAM  with  neg.  48  c. 

UNUS  42  b,  with  rel.  and  subj.  185  a. 

USQUAM  with  neg.  48  c. 

USQUE  with  ace.  147  b. 

us  us  with  abl.  136  a. 

UT  with  concess.  subj.  151  b,  175  b, 
176  c,  as  indef.  rel.  177  a,  UT  CUM 
180  c,  in  final  clauses  182  a,  consec. 
do.  183  c,  subst.  do.  195 b,  197  a.  with 
verbs  of  fearing  196  c,  oinitti"li<i. 

UTERQUE  with  plur.  veri>  11;;  c,  with 
nouns  and  pronouns  116  c. 

UTI,  rTJL\AM.  with  subj.  of  wish  151a, 

.  f 0  c. 

•.ii.j.  174  c. 
.  used  alone  201  b. 


=.;a,  syncop.  65  b. 
\     ..UK  41  a. 

Value,  genitive  of  115  b. 
VAPULO  77  b. 
Variable  nouns  31  b,  adj.  37  c. 


-VE,  VEL,  95  b. 

VELIM,  VELLEM,  with  subj.  151  a. 

VELUTl,   VELUTSI  174  C. 

VENEO  77  b,  80  a. 

Verbs  50-83,  forms  54,  56,  endings  55  c, 
special  forms  and  parallel  65  b,  de- 
ponent 75  c,  irreg.  78,  defect.  81, 
impers.  82,  deriv.  of  99,  compound 
100  b,  syntax  112,  113,  148-209, 
omitted  113  b,  of  remembering  &c. 
119  a,  of  accusing  &c.  119  b,  of 
emotion  with  gen.  120  a,  of  plenty, 

.     &c.  120  c. 

Verbals  in  AX  98  b,  with  gen.  117  c. 

VERO  96  a,  in  answers  201  c. 

Verse  222  c,  forms  of  224-231. 

VERSUS  93  a,  as  adv.  147  b. 

VERUM  95  b. 

VESCOR  with  abl.  140  b. 

VETO,  constr.  of  155  a,  194  a. 

VIM  5b,  vis  48  a. 

Vocative  12  a,  13  a,  of  nouns  in  lus 
16  b,  construction  134,  of  adj.  for 
nom.  134Jb. 

Voices  50  a. 

VOLO  79. 

Vowels  1  b,  strengthened  62  a,  weak- 


Vowel  change  in  verbs  56,  in  future 
63  a,  subj.  53  c,  in  compounds  65  a. 

Vowel  increase  2  c,  61  a,  62  b,  63  b,  96  b. 

Vowel  scale  2  c. 

Vowel  stems  12  c,  17  b,  19  a,  20  a,  gen- 
der of  24. 


Winds,  gender  10  c. 
Wishes  and  commands  192. 
Women,  names  of,  32  c. 


Y  in  root  of  third  conj.  62  c. 


E  ft  R  A  T  A. 

Page  9,  paragraph  3,  omit  the  third  line. 
„     143;  Note,  erase  the  last  two  words. 


Wpi£S^ 

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